LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIFT  OF" 

PACIFIC  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY. 

84638 


^Accession 


Class    - 


3:>resen.ted.    by 


Boston. 


York. 


At  Exhibitions  in  the  U.  S.     First  Premiums 
over  all  Competition. 


ILOIVOCMV. 


Boston. 


ISJ"ew  York. 


THE 


aAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE: 


A  HAND-BOOK  OF  INSTRUCTION 


ON 


THE  PROPER  MANAGEMENT   AND  ECON 
OMICAL  USE  OF  GAS. 


WITH 


A   FULL   DESCRIPTION   OF  GAS-METERS, 


DIRECTIONS   FOR   ASCERTAINING  THE 
CONSUMPTION  BY  METER. 


ON 


ETC. 


BOSTON : 

ALEXANDER    MOORE. 
1871. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 

ALEXANDER    MOORE, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT  .  .  .  .11 

ADVANTAGES    OF   GAS               .                        20 

GAS,    H\)W   MANUFACTURED,    AND    ITS   QUALITY    ...  27 

CONSIDERATIONS    ON   ADOPTING    GAS   LIGHTING    ...  39 

ON   GAS   FITTINGS,    PENDANTS,    BRACKETS,    ETC.  ...  46 

GAS    STOVES   AND   GAS    COOKING   APPARATUS,    ETC.       .           .  49 

BURNERS,    FLAMES,    GLASSES,    REFLECTORS,    ETC.            .            .  53 
THE   PROPER  POSITION    OF   GAS-LIGHTS        .            .            .           .73 

GAS-METER .  .78 

DESCRIPTION   OF  WET   GAS-METER 82 

DESCRIPTION    OF   DRY   GAS-METER 94 

I$|DEX   OF    METER 102 

GAS-REGULATOR 108 

VENTILATION           .            .            . 113 

CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS-LIGHTING 125 

CONCLUDING    REMARKS 136 


(vii) 

.84638 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

ACCIDENTS  from  gas    . 45,  48, 143 

Advantages  of  gas 20 

"         "    two  chimneys  to  argand-burner 62 

Air,  the  effect  of,  mixing  with  gas 101,136 

Ammonia  and  ammoniacal  gas 134 

Apparatus,  for  cooking,  baths,  etc 51 

Argand-burner 55,  57,  01 

Artificial  light,  brief  history  of 11 

BATHS,  apparatus  for,  etc 51 

Bisulphide  of  carbon 134 

Burner,  argand .        .     55,  57,  61 

"      bat-wing 64 

"      fishtail 66 

«"      Carcel,  and  single  jet 69 

Burners 53, 139 

"      how  to  light  them 44 

CANDLE,  the,  how  it  burns,  etc 12,  30,  31, 125 

Carbon 129 

"      bisulphide  of 134 

Carbonic  acid  gas 133 

"        oxide 131 

Carbonization  of  gas 140 

Check-taps  as  a  substitute  for  regulator Ill 

Chemistry  of  gas-lighting 125 

Chimneys  for  burners 61, 137 

Chlorine  gas 123 

Cleanliness  of  gas 22 

Composition  of  coal-gas 130 

Considerations  on  adopting  gas-lighting 39 

Cyanogen       ......        185 

DRY  METER,  description  of . .        .       94 

index  of,  and  how  to  read  it 104-106 

ECONOMY  of  gas 21 

Effect  of  gas  on  health 139 

illumination  on  the  air  of  the  apartment 113 

mixing  air  with  gas 101,  136 

"        the  heat  and  vapor  from  combustion 116 

'*        temperature  on  meter,  etc 41 

Effects  of  impure  gas 34 

Elements  of  coal-gas 123 

Escape  of  gas,  how  to  detect  and  remedy          ,        .        .        .  43,  48, 142, 145 

Experiments,  etc.,  with  burners 55,'  58,  59 

Explosion  of  gas 143 

FISH-TAIL  BURNER 66 

Flame 54,  55 

Flickering 137 

GAS,  ammoniacal 134 

"     carbonic  acid 133 

"    chlorine  128 


INDEX.  ix 

•  • 

Gas,  Coal,  accidents  from 45,  48, 143 

advantages  of 20 

•  as  a  motive  power :  engine 52 

brilliancy  of 23 

burners  for 55-69 

carbonization  of .        .      140 

cleanliness  of 22 

composition  of 130 

economy  of 21 

effect  of  on  health 139 

"      "    mixing  air  with    .  101, 136 

escape  of,  how  to  detect  and  remedy        .        .        .43,  48, 142, 146 

experiments  with,  etc 55,  58,  59 

explosion  of 143 

first  obtained  from  coal      .  .        .        .        .        .        .        17 

general  complaints  about 53 

illuminating,  how  obtained 28 

illuminating  quality  of 146 

impure,  its  effects 34 

impurities  of,  how  to  detect 35, 132 

introduced  into  various  cities    .......  17-19 

luminosity  of 138 

manufacture  of  .        . 27 

mode  of  burning        .        .       .        .       .        .        .        .        .133 

pressure  of 37,  108, 138, 142 

safety  of 21 

salubrity  of „        .        .        23 

utility  of 24 

whyxit  smokes 31 

cyanogen .      135 

hydrogen 128 

light  carburetted  hydrogen 130 

nitrogen 128 

olefiant -131 

oxygen 127 

Gas  cooking  apparatus,  baths,  etc .        .        51 

fitters,  skilled  workmen  should  be  employed 40 

fittings,  pendents,  brackets,  etc. 46,  47 

light,  one  good  one  best 60 

lighting,  chemistry  of 125 

considerations  on  adopting 39 

when  adopted,  skilled  workmen  necessary        ...        40 

ligh  s  should  not  be  placed  in  cellars 45 

4    the  proper  position  of *    .    73,  75,  76 

meter,  description  of    .        .        . 82, 94 

effects  of  temperature  on 41,94 

freezing  of  the  liquid  in 94 

how  gas  is  measured  by 83 

how  the  quantity  is  indicated  by 88 

index  of,  and  how  to  read  it 102-105 

proper  position  of 41,  94 

records  with  accuracy 78 

pipes,  the  kinds  of  to  be  used 42 

stoves,  and  how  placed .        .  49-61 

'  regulator,  description  of,  and  why  required     .        .        .        108-111, 142 
check-taps  as  a  substitute  for    .        .  '     ,        .        .        .      Ill 

Gasalier,  hydraulic 47 

Gases  —  what  they  are 27, 127 

General  complaints  about  gas 53, 139 

Glasses  and  globes 70,  71 

HEALTH,  effect  of  gas  on    .  139 

History,  a  brief,  of  artificial  light 11 

How  a  candle  or  lamp  burns      . 125 


X  INDEX. 

How  illuminating  gas  is  obtained 28 

How  to  light  burners 44 

How  to  detect  the  presence  of  impurities  in  gas      ....        35, 132 

How  to  stop  a  leak 146 

Hydrocarbons 131 

Hydrogen 128 

light,  carburetted 130 

"         sulphuretted 132 

ILLUMINATING  GAS,  how  obtained 2S 

*  "  quality  of  gas 146 

Impure  gas,  its  effects 34 

Impurities  of  coal  gas,  and  how  to  detect  them       ....        35, 132 

LAMP,  the  ancient 11 

Lanterns 13-15 

Large  argands  most  economical 63 

Leak,  how  to  etop 146 

Light,  a  brief  history  of 11 

Light  carburetted  hydrogen 130 

Luminosity  of  gas 138 

METEfe,  the  gas,  description  of  .  . 82,  94 

effects  of  temperature  on,  etc 41,  94 

freezing  of  the  liquid  in 94 

how  gas  is  measured  by 38 

how  the  quantity  is  indicated  by 88 

index  of,  and  how  to  read  it  ....  102-106 

proper  position  of 41,  94 

records  with  accuracy 78 

Mode  of  burning  gas 136 

NITROGEN 128 

OBSTACLES  against  adopting  gas-lighting 39 

Olefiantgas 131 

Oxygen 127 

PIPES,  the  kinds  of  to  be  used 42 

Pressure,  etc 37,  108,  138, 142 

REFLECTORS .       .  72 

Regulators,  why  required,  and  description  of  .        .        .        .        108-111, 142 

check-taps  as  a  substitute  for Ill 

Relative  light  from  gas  and  candles 33 

SINGLE-JET  burner 69 

Stoves,  gas,  and  how  placed 49-61 

Sulphur 129 

"Sun-light  "the  best  for  public  edifices 75 

TEMPERATURE,  effects  of  on  meter 41,94 

UTILITY  of  gas 24 

VENTILATION      •. 43, 113-124, 148 

a  simple  method  of 120 

WET  METERS,  description  of 82 

"         "        index  of,  and  how  to  read  it 102 


THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE, 


CHAPTER  I. 

BRIEF  HISTORY   OF   ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT. 

THAT  light  and  heat  were  first  produced  simultaneously 
by  burning  the  branches  of  trees,  etc.,  is  apparent,  from 
the  means  employed  by  savage  tribes  to  obtain  fire. 

Then,  afterwards,  splinters  of  resinous  wood  probably 
supplied  the  means  of  artificial  light  (as  for  this  purpose 
they  are  even  now  employed  in  many  parts  of  the  civ- 
ilized world)  ;  and  for  the  same  object,  torches  and  sim- 
ilar devices  followed. 

The  employment  of  the  lamp  can  be  dated  back  to  a 
very  early  period  ;  it  being  generally  believed  that  it  is  an 
invention  of  the  Egyptians,  who  not  only  used  them  for 
common  illuminating  purposes,  but  also  placed  them  in 
the  tombs  of  the  dead,  as  emblems  of  mortality. 

The  progress  toward  the  realization  of  the  lamp  may, 
however,  have  been  so  gradual  and  simultaneous  by  dif- 
ferent nations,  as  to  preclude  the  merit  of  invention  to 
any  one  of  them. 

The  ancient  Greeks  are  known  to  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  use  of  lamps,  which  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe  were  fed  by  vegetable  oil. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  earliest,  or  most  primitive 


..84638 


12  THE   GAS-CONSUMER'S    GUIDE. 

lamps,  were  not  made  of  any  set  form,  but  that  the  fat 
or  oil  was  placed  in  any  convenient  vessel,  and  burned 
by  means  of  a  bundle  of  rushes  or  dried  moss. 

Long  after  the  ancients  were  far  advanced  in  the  arts 
and  manufactures,  they  continued  the  use  of  these  rude 
and  simple  lights,  little  or  no  attention  seemingly  having 
been  devoted  by  them  to  this  subject.  However  elab- 
orate the  design  of  the  vessel  for  holding  the  oil,  the  simple 
wick  dipping  into  it  completed  the  arrangement,  which  was 
defective  in  principle,  limited  in  utility,  expensive  in  result, 
and  not  unfrequently  s'ent  forth  volumes  of  smoke  with  a 
very  small  amount  of  light. 

The  candle  is  a  scientific  production  of  great  antiquity  ; 
and,  in  addition  to  its  means  of  lighting,  has  often  been 
applied  as  a  rude  indicator  of  time.  Perhaps  one  of  the 
most  curious  offices  it  has  fulfilled,  was  formerly,  when 
sales  by  auction,  in  England  (called  "candle  auctions"), 
were  decided  by  its  durability.  The  property  or  article 
was  offered  for  sale  at  the  same  moment  that  an  inch  of 
candle  was  lighted  ;  the  bystanders  bid  as  long  as  it  con- 
tinued burning,  and  the  commodity  was  adjudged  to  the 
last  bidder  previous  to  its  extinction. 

The  lighting  of  stree'ts,  now  so  generally  adopted,  was 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  who,  when 
returning  from  their  nocturnal  revels,  had  torches  or 
lanterns  carried  before  them  by  their  slaves.  But  public 
illuminations  on  particular  occasions  are,  however,  very 
ancient :  Egypt  and  Greece  had  them ;  Rome  was  lighted 
up  on  the  occasion  of  some  games  exhibited  under  Caligula  ; 
the  Jews  illuminated  the  Holy  City  for  eight  days  at  the 
dedication  of  the  Temple  ;  and  Constantinople  was  hung 
with  festal  lamps  on  Easter  Eve. 

London  seems  to  have  been  the  first  city  which  perma- 


BRIEF    HISTORY   OF    ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT.  13 

nently  adopted  this  improvement ;  for  in  1414  the  citizens 
were  ordered  to  hang  out  lanterns  to  light  the  streets  ; 
and  in  1417  (according  to  Stowe),  Sir  Henry  Barton, 
being  Mayor  of  London,  ordered  "lanthorns  with  lights 
to  be  hanged  out  in  the  streets  in  the  winter  evenings 
between  All  Hallowtide  and  Candlemas  "  ;  and  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  watchmen  to  see  the  order  duly  enforced. 

These  were  the  first  attempts  to  illuminate  streets  ;  but 
we  can  judge  of  the  dreary  state  of  London  from  the. 
fact  that  the  steeple  of  old  Bow  Church,  before  the  Great 
Fire,  was  so  constructed  that  on  its  top  there  was  a  lan- 
tern, intended  to  direct  travellers  and  market  people  who 
came  from  the  north ;  and  in  Barbican  was  a  tower  with 
light  for  the  same  object. 

In  those  times,  whenever  a  large  light  was  required, 
such  as  at  the  entrance  of  churches  on  the  occasion  of 
religious  processions,  beacons  were  used  for  the  purpose. 
These  were  iron  cages,  or,  as  now  termed,  fire-baskets, 
which  were  generally  attached  to  the  walls,  and  supplied 
with  wood  and  tarred  rope.  They  were  also  made  to  be 
portable,  being  placed  on  the  top  of  a  wooden  frame,  with 
a  ladder  to  supply  the  fuel,  and  carried,  on  festal  occasions, 
wherever  they  might  be  required. 

In  1G68,  when  some  regulations  were  made  for  im- 
proving the  streets  of  London,  the  inhabitants  were  re- 
minded to.  hang  out  their  lanterns  at  the  usual  hour  for 
"  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  city." 

In  1679,  we  find  the  Lord  Mayor  complaining  of  the 
neglect  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  in  not  hanging  and 
keeping  out  their  lights  at  the  accustomed  hours,  "  accord- 
ing to  the  good  and  ancient  usage  and  acts  of  Council  in 
that  behalf."  * 

In  1690,  the  order  was  renewed,  with  an  exception  in 


14  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

favor  of  those  who  should  agree  to  make  use  of  lamps  of 
any  sort,  to  be  placed  at  such  distances  in  the  streets  as 
should  be  approved  of  by  the  Justices  of  the  Peace. 

In  the  year  1716,  the  Common  Council  of  the  city  of 
London  passed  an  act,  "  That  every  housekeeper  whose 
house  fronts  the  street  should  set  or  hang  out  one  or  more 
lights,  with  sufficient  cotton  wicks,  that  shall  continue  to 
burn  from  six  o'clock  at  night  till  eleven  o'clock  the  same 
night,  on  penalty  of  one  shilling,  to  be  enforced  by  distress 
or  otherwise." 

In  1736  and  1739,  lighting  the  streets  with  lamps  was 
partially  adopted ;  but  as  this  did  not  extend  to  the  whole 
town,  and  many  street  robberies  were  committed,  an  Act 
of  Parliament  was  passed  in  1744  for  completely  lighting 
the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster.  Birmingham  was 
first  lighted  by  lamps  in  1733,  so  that  in  this  improvement 
it  preceded  London. 

The  streets  of  Paris  were  first  lighted  in  1524,  when  a 
mandate  was  issued  requiring  the  inhabitants  to  keep 
lights  burning  from  nine  in  the  evening,  in  those  windows 
which  fronted  the  street,  in  order  to  guard  against  incen- 
diaries and  robbers ;  and  in  1558,  large  vases,  supplied 
with  pitch  and  other  combustible  matter,  were  placed  at 
the  corners  of  the  streets,  to  serve  the  purpose  of  illu- 
mination. 

In  1662,  an  Italian  abbe  of  the  name  of  Laudati  ob- 
tained an  exclusive  privilege  to  let  out  torches  and  lan- 
terns for  hire  ;  for  this  purpose  he  erected  booths  in  several 
parts  of  Paris,  where  men  and  boys  were  in  waiting  ready 
to  attend  either  carriages  or  foot-passengers.  These  link- 
men  and  boys  were  paid  by  time  ;  and  to  avoid  disputes, 
eacVof  them  carried  an  hour-glass. 

The  reverberating  or  reflecting  lamps  were  introduced 


BRIEF   HISTORY   OF    ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT.  15 

into  Paris  in  1766.  These  were  suspended  over  the  centre 
of  the  road  by  chains  or  cords,  which  extended  from  house 
to  house,  and  were  raised  or  lowered,  for  the  purpose  of 
lighting  or  trimming,  by  means  of  a  pulley  and  cord  or 
chain. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  the  paro- 
chial or  district  street  lighting  was  so  defective,  that  in 
first-class  streets  in  London  every  house  had  its  lantern 
with  iron  frame  attached  to  the  railings  at  the  entrance  ; 
and  when  well-to-do  people  went  out  on  foot  they  were 
accompanied  by  a  servant  carrying  a  hand-lantern  to  light 
the  way ;  whilst  the  entrances  of  theatres  and  such  like 
places  were  thronged  with  link-boys,  with  their  general 
salutation  of  "Link,  yer  honor,"  ready  to  accompany 
coaches,  sedan-chairs,  or  foot  passengers.  And  to  show 
the  importance  of  these  light  bearers,  all  the  principal 
houses  had  extinguishers  for  the  torches  at  their  entrances, 
many  of  which,  with  the  frames  of  the  lanterns  before 
mentioned,  are  still  in  existence  at  the  west  end  of 
London. 

At  that  period  people  seemed  to  care  little  about  quan- 
tity of  light ;  perhaps",  never  having  experienced  its  utility, 
they  did  not  know  its  worth.  The  rows  of  lamps  at  the 
entrances  of  houses  in  the  principal  streets  only  served  to 
make  darkness  visible ;  but  whilst  the  better  class  of 
streets  were  thus  badly  illuminated,  the  others  were  next 
to  total  darkness  ;  a  dingy  lamp  here  and  there  was  sup- 
posed to  light,  but  answered  really  no  useful  purpose. 

Everything  connected  with  street  lighting  was  just  as 
preposterously  large  as  the  lights  were  ridiculously  small, 
two  of  which,  according  to  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Accum 
before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  only  gave 
the  light  of  one  penny  tallow  candle.  The  lamp-lighter 


16  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

carried  an  immense  torch,  which  illuminated  more  than  all 
the  lamps  in  a  large  street  combined.  The  diminutive  jets 
were  enclosed  in  colossal  glasses,  and  the  watchman  of  the 
time  carried  a  lantern  of  gigantic  dimensions,  and  yet  so 
small  was  its  light,  that  to  be  assured  of  the  identity  of  an 
individual  he  was  obliged  to  hold  it  close  to  the  person's 
face.  At  that  period  the  streets  of  London  were  infested 
with  footpads,  who  carried  on  their  depredations  in  the 
most  daring  manner,  and  often  with  extreme  violence. 
Bobberies  were  of. most  frequent  occurrence,  and  the 
ladders  of  the  lamp-lighters  who  went  to  trim  the  lamps 
at  midnight  were  often  "borrowed"  for  the  purpose  of 
committing  burglaries. 

But  whilst  this  dreariness  existed  in  the  streets,  the  in- 
terior of  dwellings  was  little  better.  It  is  true  Mr.  Argand 
had  previously  invented  his  beautiful  lamp-burner  ;  but  it 
was  far  from  being  perfect,  was  very  expensive,  and  after 
all  only  a  slight  advance  in  lighting  when  compared  with 
gas. 

Coal,  from  which  gas  is  almost  universally  obtained, 
was  first  used  in  London  by  brewers,  dyers,  and  other 
businesses  which  required  large  fires,  about  the  year  1306  ; 
but  the  smoke  therefrom  becoming  very  offensive  to  the 
resident  nobility  and  gentry,  combined  with  the  opposition 
from  the  medical  profession,  who  pronounced  it  to  be 
poisonous,  a  royal  decree  was  in  consequence  issued,  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  coal  under  severe  penalties.  But  in 
time,  as  wood  fuel  became  scarce,  and  the  trade  of  the 
city  increased,  prejudice  gave  way  to  utility,  and  gradually 
the  use  of  coal  was  tolerated. 

The  first  patents,  or  as  then  termed  exclusive  privileges,^ 
in  conjunction  Avith  coal,  were  granted  about  1589.    These 
consisted  in  forging  iron,  melting  glass,  boiling  soap,  and 


BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT.  17 

melting  lead  with  coal.  Amongst  the  products  for  which 
patents  were  granted  may  be  enumerated  the  making  of 
charcoal  (coke),  pitch,  tar,  and  oil,  the  latter  being  de- 
scribed as  a  cure  for  "rheumatick,  scorbulatic,  and  other 
cases." 

Gas  was  first  obtained  from  coal  by  Dr.  Hales,  in  172 G, 
who  employed  it  as  a  source  of  amusement  for  his  friends  ; 
by  filling  a  bladder  with  it,  and  puncturing  a  small  hole 
therein,  he  lighted  the  issuing  gas.  However,  it  was  re- 
garded only  as  a  philosophical  toy,  without  any  view  to 
utility.  Subsequently,  Dr.  Clayton,  Dr.  Watson,  and 
other  scientific  men,  at  various  periods,  turned  their  at- 
tention to  the  subject ;  but  the  true  discoverer  of  the  prac- 
tical application  of  coal-gas  for  lighting  purposes  was  Mr. 
Miirdock,  a  Scotchman,  who,  in  the  year  1792,  while  at 
lledruth,  in  Cornwall,  made  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  quantity  and  qualities  of  the  gases  produced  by  dis- 
tillation from  different  mineral  and  vegetable  substances. 
That  gentleman  first  lighted  his  house  and  offices  by  gas 
in  1792  ;  and  in  1798,  by  the  same  means,  he  lighted  part 
of  the  Soho  Works,  at  Birmingham  ;  and  in  1802,  a  mag- 
nificent public  display  of  gas  illumination  was  made  by 
him  at  that  establishment. 

Mr.  Murdock,  and  a  few  others  who  entered  into  com- 
petition with  him,  then  commenced  the  construction  of 
gas-works  for  supplying  large  manufactories,  such  as 
cotton-mills,  etc.,  to  which  they  seemed  to  confine  them- 
selves ;  but  the  views  of  Mr.  Winsor,  who  entered  the 
field  at  the  period  as  a  propagator  of  gas  lighting,  were 
much  more  gigantic  and  comprehensive,  for  he  proposed 
the  necessity  of  lighting  streets,  shops,  dwellings,  heating 
apartments,  and  cooking  by  gas,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  company  for  the  full  development  of  the  new  art. 


18  THE  GAS-COXSUMEK'S  GUIDE. 

For  this  purpose  Mr.  Winsor  gave  public  lectures  de- 
monstrating the  utility  and  practicability  of  gas,  showing 
the  various  operations  and  the  vast  superiority  of  that  over 
all  other  means  of  artificial  light.  The  opposition  against 
the  innovation  was  great  in  the  extreme ;  but  at  length, 
after  struggling  with  indomitable  perseverance  for  some 
years,  he  ultimately  succeeded  in  establishing  the  first  gas 
company  in  the  world  for  the  production  of  gas  as  an  ar- 
ticle of  commerce  —  the  "chartered"  of  London  —  and 
was  originally  empowered  as  "The  Gas  Light  and  Coke 
Company,"  which  commenced  business  in  1813. 

But  the  prejudice  against  it  was  very  great.  Napoleon 
ridiculed  it,  and  said,  "C'est  une  grande  folie."  Sir 
Walter  Scott  gravely  informed  his  friends  that  he  thought 
London  would  be  in  flames  from  one  end  to  the  other  if 
this  visionary  idea  was  attempted  to  be  carried  out.  Mr. 
Clegg  gives  an  account  of  the  horrors  of  the  lamp-lighters 
when  they  first  beheld  the  burning  gas,  and  how  he  was 
obliged  to  light  the  lamps  himself  for  some  time,  on  ac- 
count of  the  fears  of  the  people.  Even  such  men  as  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  and  Sir  Joseph  Banks  were  unable  for 
many  years  after  this  to  overcome  the  prejudices  which 
existed  in  their  own  minds  concerning  it ;  and  they  thought 
the  scheme  a  wild  and  dangerous  one.  The  public,  how- 
ever, soon  became  reconciled  to  it ;  and  in  1814,  the  oil- 
lamps  were  removed  from  the  streets  of  St.  Margaret, 
Westminster,  and  gas-lights  were  put  in  their  places. 
This  was  the  first  parish  that  entered  into  a  contract  to 
have  the  streets  lighted  with  gas. 

Paris  was  first  lighted  by  gas  in  1820,  and  although 
previously  strong  prejudices  existed  against  the  project, 
yet,  when  carried  out,  it  produced  a  corresponding  enthu- 
siasm ;  and,  to  give  an  instance,  a  French  author  of  the 


BRIEF   HISTORY   OF   ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT.  19 

period,  in  writing  to  a  friend  describing  the  new  light, 
said,  "Where  gas-light  exists,  there  is  no  night;  where 
gas-light  is,  there  is  continuous  day." 

The  first  attempts  to  introduce  gas  into  this  country 
were  made  at  Baltimore,  in*  1816.  The  company  first 
organized,  which  is  the  oldest  in  this  country,  constructed 
works  for  the  manufacture  of  tar^gas,  but  was  unsuccess- 
ful ;  and  it  was  not  until  about  1821  that  gas  was  successfully 
introduced.  Boston  next  introduced  it  in  1822,  and  con- 
tinues to  work  under  its  first  charter.  New  York  fol- 
lowed, commencing  operations  in  1823,  but  did  not  get 
into  successful  operation  until  1827.  Philadelphia  intro- 
duced it  in  1835  ;  and  it  has,  since  its  first  introduction, 
been  gradually  extending  over  the  whole  world.  It  may 
now  be  said  to  be  universal  in  the  cities  and  towns  of 
Europe  ;  and  is  making  rapid  progress  in  North  America. 
It  is  used  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States 
and  of  Canada,  and  it  is  spreading  rapidly  in  the  smaller 
towns.  Its  introduction  into  South  America  and  into 
Asia  has  been  more  recent,  and  its  progress  there,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  is  much  slower.  It  has  also 
been  introduced  into  the  principal  towns  in  Australia  and 
Tasmania. 


20  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    GAS. 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  opposition  which  has  existed 
against  the  employment  of  this  indispensable  article,  the 
inexplicable  conflagrations  unjustly  laid  to  its  charge,  and 
but  too  often  the  work  of  the  incendiary ;  the  rare  and 
unfrequent  accidents  which  have  unfortunately  occurred, 
not  by  its  use,  but  by  its  abuse  ;  and  the  partial  and 
unjustifiable  attacks  made  against  its  usefulness  by  inter- 
ested persons  ;  notwithstanding  the  full  amount  of  this 
wholesale  prejudice,  gas  has  made  such  rapid  and  uni- 
versal advances  as  to  prove  incontestably  its  immense 
superiority  over  all  other  means  of  artificial  illumination. 
And  can  any  one  doubt  that  the  same  voice  which  first  bade 
light  to  be,  has  summoned  gas  to  the  service  of  man,  and 
pronounced  the  light  from  it  to  be-  goocf  ? 

A  few  observations  on  the  advantages,  safety,  economy, 
cleanliness,  briljiancy,  salubrity,  and  utility  of  gas,  may 
not  be  considered  out  of  place  here. 

Advantages. — The  superiority  of  coal-gas,  as  compared 
with  every  other  material  for  producing  light,  has  been 
too  long  acknowledged  to  require  arguments  or  illustra- 
tions. The  superiority  of  gas  consists,  not  merely  in 
the  relative  cheapness  of  the  light  obtained  from  it,  as 
that  compared  with  tallow,  wax,  sperm-oil,  kerosene, 
camphene,  etc. ;  there  are  other  circumstances  connected 


ADVANTAGES   OF   GAS.  21 

with  its  use,  which  are  of  far  greater  » importance, 
namely :  its  convenience,  cleanliness,  brilliancy,  manage- 
ability, and  safety. 

Gas  requires  no  preparation  by  the  consumer ;  it  is 
lighted  in  a  moment,  can  be  increased  or  diminished  at 
pleasure,  and  retires  with  the  rapidity  of  thought.  It 
saves  labor  and  time,  as  compared  with  oil  and  other 
lamps,  and  where  candles  are  used.  The  odor,  so  pecu- 
liar to  coal-gas,  has  often  been  urged  as  an  objection  to 
its  use  ;  a  stronger  ground  of  objection  would  exist  if  it 
was  free  from  odor ;  its  presence,  in  an  unburnt  state,  is 
thereby  infallibly  detected,  and  thus  fair  warning  is  given 
that  something  requires  remedying. 

Safety.  —  Gas  is  beyond  all  comparison  safer  than  any 
other  means  of  artificial  illumination.  It  puts  aside  the 
necessity  of  movable  lights,  and  as  candles  or  lamps 
were  a  continuous  source  of  trouble,  by  which  both  life 
and  property  have  been  endangered,  and  too  frequently 
destroyed,  the  stationary,  steady,  and  brilliant  light  from 
gas  must  be  more  desirable.  But  no  better  argument  is 
required  than  the  daily  accidents  from  explosions  of  carn- 
phene  and  kerosene  lamps,  resulting,  as  they  so  often  do, 
in  the  most  horrible  of  deaths,  to  prove  the  superior  safety 
of  gas.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  many  insu- 
rance companies  in  Europe  insure  premises  thus  lighted 
at  a  much  lower  premium  than  those  illumined  by  other 
means. 

Economy. — Gas  is  the  best  and  most  economical  mode  of 
obtaining  artificial  light  as  yet  brought  into  use,  though 
hardly  known  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
It  requires  no  labor,  no  provision,  nor  store  •;  it  is  a  good 
servant,  comes  momentarily  when  demanded,  and  is  ex- 
tinguished as  readily  when  no  longer  required. 


22  THE  GAS-CONSUMEK'S  GUIDE. 

The  cost  df  gas  varies  somewhat  in  different  localities, 
and  at  different  periods,  according  to  the  fluctuations  in 
the  price  of  coal,  the  cost  of  labor,  the  quantity  man- 
ufactured, and  the  character  of  district  supplied. 

The  present  cost  per  one  thousand  cubic  feet  (1870)  in 
New  York,  is  $3.00  and  $3.50  ;  in  Boston,  $3.00  ;  in  Cin-  - 
cinnati,  $2.50  ;  in  Buffalo,  $3.50  ;  in  Detroit,  $3.50  ;  in 
Rochester,  $3.00  ;  in  Milwaukee,  $4.50  ;  in  Erie,  $4.00. 
The  average  cost  to  private  consumers  will  average 
throughout  the  country  abont  $3.50  per  one  thousand 
cubic  feet. 

The  actual  cost  of  production,  with  coal  and  labor  at 
present  prices,  cannot  much  exceed,  if  any,  $1.50  per  one 
thousand  cubic  feet.  In  addition  to  the  first  cost,  how- 
ever, in  justice  to  the  gas  companies,  must  be  added  the 
leakage  and  loss  from  bad  customers,  which  should  not  N 
increase  the  cost  to  more  than  $1.75  per  thousand  cubic 
feet,  leaving  a  pretty  wide  margin  of  profit  to  the  gas 
companies. 

But  suppose  that  the  average  cost  of  production  and 
service  should  reach  $2.00,  or  even  $2.25,  our  gas  should 
be  supplied  at  an  average  cost  of  not  more  than  $3.00, 
instead  of  $3.50,  per  one  thousand  cubic  feet,  as  at  pres- 
ent. One  ton  of  coal  should  produce  about  9,000  cubic 
feet  of  gas,  about  1  chaldron  of  coke,  and  about  11  gal- 
lons of  tar,  and  9  of  ammoniacal  liquor. 

Cleanliness.  —  Gas  is  by  far  much  cleaner  than  any 
other  artificial  light.  Much  unpleasantness  and  pollution 
have  always  accompanied  the  use  of  the  oil  or  kerosene 
lamp,  the  tallow,  sperm,  or  wax  candle,  or,  in  fact,  any 
other  method  of  illumination.  Sometimes  there  is  a  de- 
ficiency of  oil,  or  defect  in  the  lamp ;  the  least  draught 
of  air  will  disarrange  the  burning  of  the  caudle  ;  grease 


ADVANTAGES   OF   GAS.  23 

and  dirt  will  besmear  the  person  and  dress ;  but  by  the 
use  of  gas,  the  evening's  vocations  or  pleasures  are  en- 
joyed without  any  of  these  interruptions  or  annoyances. 

Brilliancy.  —  The  light  from  gas  is  more  congenial 
than  that  from  candles  and  lamps ;  its  position,  when 
properly  placed,  is  above  the  line  of  vision,  so  that  the 
eyelid  serves  to  protect  the  eye  from  its  direct  rays. 
Some  people  have  pretended  that  it  is  injurious  to  the 
sight ;  but  a  stronger  contradiction  to  such  statement 
cannot  be  given* than  that  many  public  and  private  insti- 
tutions and  offices  are  almost  exclusively  lighted  in  the 
daytime  by  these  means,  giving  every  opportunity  for 
complaint,  if  any  cause  existed ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
from  experience,  it  is  more  agreeable  than  any  other  ar- 
tificial light,  end  once  used  and  properly  purified  is  never 
abandoned.  There  is  a  further  advantage,  that  it  can  be 
increased  or  decrease^  at  pleasure,  thus  preventing  the 
straining  of  the  eyes,  which  is  so  injurious  where  there 
is  an  insufficiency  or  excess  of  light. 

Salubrity,  —  In  order  to  show  the  advantage  of  well- 
purified  coal-gas  over  all  other  materials  for  illumination, 
as  regards  the  injury  done  to  the  atmosphere  of  the  room 
in  which  their  combustion  is  going  on,  Dr.  Frankland  has 
given  the  following  table,  which  exhibits  the  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  evolved  by  a  number  of  illuminating  agents 
burnt  in  such  quantity  as  to  give  a  light,  for  ten  hours, 
equal  to  that  of  20  sperm  candles,  each  burning  120 
grains  per  hour  :  — 

Tallow  evolves  10.1  cubic  feet  carbonic  acid. 
Wax  "        8.3  "  "  " 

Spermaceti  "        8.3  "  "  " 

Sperm  oil  "        6.4  "  "  " 


24  THE  'GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

Common  gas  evolves    5.0  cubic  feet  carbonic  acid. 
Medium  gas         "        4.0  "  "  " 

Best  gas  "        3.0  "  "  " 

When  a  given  amount  of  light  is  obtained,  gas  is  thus 
shown  to  be  more  salubrious  than  any  other  illumination  ; 
it  is  identical  in  its  nature  with  the  lamp  or  the  candle, 
which  is  demonstrated  by  "blowing  out  the  one  or  the 
other,  when  the  gas,  combined  with  vapor,  is  perceptible 
to  the  sight,  and  emits  a  similar  smell  to  that  supplied 
from  the  company's  works  when  unconsumed  ;  indeed  the 
odor  is  more  disagreeable,  caused  by  the  cotton  forming 
the  wick. 

Some  people  think  that  as  gas  in  its  fluid  state  emits  an 
offensive  odor,  that  the  same  must  exist  when  inflamed  ; 
this,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  gas  when  properly  pu- 
rified gives  no  more  obnoxious  odor  during  combustion 
than  lamps  or  candles,  but  as  just  illustrated  with  these, 
when  allowed  to  escape  unconsumed,  the  inconvenience 
exists.  Still  we  must  regard  it  as  providentially  ordained 
that  gas  possesses  this  obnoxious  quality,  as  it  is  a  notice 
or  forewarning  of  a  required  attention,  which  being  imme- 
diately adopted,  the  possibility  of  danger  and  nuisance  is 
avoided. 

Utility.  —  Gas  may  now  be  burnt  in  private  houses 
without  the  slightest  effluvia  or  escape  of  the  pipes,  joints, 
or  fittings,  and,  if  properly  purified,  may  be  burnt  in  any 
kind  of  room,  however  highly  ornamented  by  gilding  and 
otherwise,  without  being  in  any  way  prejudicial. 

Gas  has  large  claims  for  throwing  out  a  genial 
warmth  throughout  apartments ;  it  is  also  extensively 
employed  in  the  cooking  or  preparing  of  food,  and  is 
daily  being  introduced  into  the  culinary  department  of 


ADVANTAGES   OF   GAS.  25 

private  families.  Roasting  by  gas  surpasses  all  other 
ways.  Boiling,  steaming,  stewing,  etc.,  are  all  fulfilled 
with  much  less  trouble  and  cost,  and  more  cleanliness  and 
perfection,  than  by  charcoal  or  the  common  stove. 

Baths  are  heated  by  gas  at  a  very  insignificant  cost. 
Drying-rooms  in  laundries  are  kept  at  a  good  uniform 
temperature  with  a  couple  of  burners,  so  applying  a  rem- 
edy on  this  point  for  the  uncertainty  of  climate,  and  the 
breakfast-table  no  longer  requires  a  coal  fire.  A  simple 
apparatus  at  the  cost  of  a  few  dollars  is  a  substitute  for 
the  kitchen  range  or  house  fire  ;  this  can,  by  means  of  a 
flexible  tube,  be  placed  anywhere,  and  a  given  quantity  of 
boiling  water,  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  breakfast  of 
any  family,  can  be  procured  in  one-fifth  the  time  of  the 
house  fire,  at  less  than  one-third  the  cost,  and  a  twentieth 
part  of  the  trouble. 

Indeed  there  are  few  branches  of  industry  where  heat 
is  required  that  gas  cannot  be  used  with  advantage,  and 
new  applications  of  it  are  continually  being  made.  Its 
benefits  are  such  as  a  means  of  illumination,  which  any 
one  who  has  left  the  obscurity  of  candle,  or  lamp,  for  its 
light,  can  fully  appreciate,  and  the  wonder  is  how  people 
can  be  without  it. 

But  gas  has  fulfilled  another  most  important  service  : 
in  our  large  cities,  it  has  rendered  life  and  property  more 
secure;  and  those  numerous  localities,  which  at  night 
were  the  haunts  of  violence  and  crime,  are  now  compar- 
atively safe ;  and  the  lonely  traveller  (whose  purse  and 
person  were  so  frequently  in  danger  from  an  attack  of  the 
highway  robber,  or  footpad)  can  now  pursue  his  path  in 
comfort  and  safety,  knowing  that  those  gentlemen  of  the 
road  "  prefer  darkness  rather  than  light,  because  their 
deeds  are  evil."  Some  may  say  this  change  is  due  to  the 


26  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

advanced  civilization  of  society,  and  undoubtedly  it  is  so  ; 
but  gas  has  contributed  largely  to  that  change.  The 
greatly  improved  illumination  of  our  streets  has  tended 
to  prevent  crime  ;  it  has  afforded  great  facilities  for  perr 
sons  to  assemble  at  nightly  scientific,  literary,  musical, 
and  other  meetings  ;  it  has  thus  facilitated  the  reunion  of 
society  of  every  grade,  and  therefore  it  may  be  truthfully 
said  that  gas  has  certainly  assisted  largely  in  attaining 
this  advancement  in  civilization. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   GAS.  27 


CHAPTER  III. 

MANUFACTURE   OF   GAS. 

GAS  is  a  term  which  is  applied  to  all  permanent  invis- 
ible fluids.  The  air  we  breathe  is  composed  of  two  gases 
— oxygen  and  nitrogen ;  there  are  innumerable  other 
gases,  possessing  very  different  and  opposite  natures, 
which,  by  the  science  of  chemistry,  we  are  taught  to 
understand,  produce,  and  combine. 

Gases  exist  in  various  ways  ;  some  are  natural  produc- 
tions, as  those  arising  from  the  decay  of  vegetable  or 
animal  matter,  those  issuing  from  volcanoes,  the  atmos- 
phere, etc.  Others  are  obtained  by  chemical  manipulation, 
one  of  which  processes  is  called  destructive  distillation ; 
that  is,  by  submitting  materials  to  a  great  heat,  gas  is 
expelled,  and  the  original  nature  of  the  material  destroyed  ; 
thus  when  coal,  tallow,  oil,  and  a  large  number  of  other 
substances  are  submitted  to  this  process,  gas,  such  as  used 
for  lighting,  is  produced. 

Vapor,  as  steam,  will  convey  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  the 
volume  of  gas  ;  but  this,  by  a  diminution  of  temperature, 
becomes  liquid,  whereas  gases  of  every  kind  are  permanent 
under  all  ordinary  circumstances.  We  are  enabled  better 
to  understand  their  volume  by  observing  smoke  when 
issuing  from  a  fireplace,  chimney,  or  elsewhere,  which  is 
a  mixture  of  several  gases  in  combination  with  vapor  and 
small  particles  of  solid  matter  commonly  called  soot.  In 


28  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

these  pages,  when  the  word  gas  is  applied,  it  will  be 
understood  in  its  general  acceptation  to  be  that  for  light- 
ing ;  and  whenever  other  kinds  are  intended,  they  will  be 
expressed. 

We  observe  in  the  ordinary  house-fire  how,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  incandescent  fuel,  the  gas  is  expelled  from  the 
coal,  sometimes  in  vigorous  small  jets  suddenly  igniting, 
producing  a  brilliant  light,  and  as  suddenly  extinguished, 
leaving  a  stream  of  impure  gas  or  smoke.  The  flame  of 
the  fire  is  due  to  the  ignition  of  gas,  and  the  volume  of 
smoke  ascending  the  chimney  consists  principally  of  this, 
but  either  being  combined  with  an  excess  of  vapor,  or 
there  being  an  insufficiency  of  air  intermixed  therewith, 
it  does  not  ignite,  and  so  passes  off  to  be  distributed  in 
the  atmosphere. 

Although  there  are  many  materials  from  which  gas  cai^ 
be  produced,  yet  coal  is  almost  universally  employed  for 
the  purpose,  on  account  of  its  price,  the  facility  with 
which  it  is  distilled,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  gas 
derived  therefrom,  and  the  value  of  the  residues  after  that 
is  expelled. 

Illuminating  gas  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of 
organic  substances,  of  which  coal  is  the  cheapest  and 
most  convenient. 

Under  a  destructive  distillation  at  a  high  heat,  wood, 
resins,  fats,  oils,  peats,  and  many  other  substances  yield 
lighting  gas. 

In  some  places  (as  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.,at  one  time), 
the  whole  supply  of  gas  has  been  made  from  pine  wood, 
which  does  not,  however,  afford  a  gas  of  a  high  illumin- 
ating power. 

Works  for  the  production  of  gas  from  resins,  fats,  and 
oils,  were  at  one  time  common,  but  have  been  generally 


MANUFACTURE    OF    GAS.  29 

abandoned  on  account  of  the  greater  cost  of  the  gas  pro- 
duced, as  compared  with  that  obtained  from  coal,  in 
the  ordinary  manner.  Some  interest  has  been  aroused  by 
the  gas-producing  properties  of  peat,  and  one  or  two  of 
the  London  companies  have  been  experimenting  with  peat 
from  the  estates  of  the  Earl  of  Caithness,  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  with  encouraging  results ;  and  it  may  be  that 
peat-gas  will  come  into  extensive  use.  Kerosene  oil  is 
distilled  at  a  moderate  heat  from  the  highly  hydrogenous 
boghead  coal,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  vast  subterranean 
collections  of  oil  in  and  near  our  coal-fields  have  formed, 
by  the  action  of  internal  heat,  upon  the  beds  of  coal 
themselves.  At  various  places,  not  far  from  the  oil-wells, 
natural  gas  is  obtained  in  abundance  from  the  ground ; 
Fredonia,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  being  lighted  through- 
out by  natural  gas,  which  is  also  employed  for  illumin- 
ating one  of  the  •lighthouses  on  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Erie.  This  gas  we  may  suppose  has  been  generated 
at  a  higher  temperature  from  the  coal  or  coal-oil,  from 
near  deposits,  of  which  the  gas  is  obtained. 

A  simple  way  to  demonstrate  the  manufacture  of  gas 
is  to  fill  the  bowl  of  a  common  tobacco-pipe  with  pow- 
dered coal,  which  is  then  covered  with  a  layer  of  plastic 
clay,  being  pressed  tightly  round  the  edge  of  it,  so  as  to 
close  it  hermetically ;  the  bowl  being  then  inserted  into 
the  midst  of  an  ordinary  fire,  after  a  short  time  gas  will 
issue  from  the  end  of  the  pipe,  which  can  be  ignited,  and 
will  continue  to  burn  till  all  is  expelled,  leaving  the  res- 
idue of  coke  in  the  bowl.  This  is  a  rude  gas-works  in 
miniature,  without  the  purifying  apparatus. 

In  the  gas  manufactory,  the  tobacco-pipe  bowl  is  re- 
placed by  large  cast-iron  or  earthen  vessels  called  retorts  ; 
these  are  imbedded  in  ovens,  and*  exposed  to  the  action 


30  TOE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


of  a  furnace,  and  so  kept  continually  red-hot  ;  they  are 
partially  filled  with  coal,  and  hermetically  closed,  when 
the  heat  decomposes  the  coal,  and  expels  the  gas,  which 
passes  from  the  retort  through  several  vessels  for  con- 
densing the  vapors  in  combination,  and  extracting  impu- 
rities, which  would  be  injurious  to  health  and  comfort  if 
allowed  to  remain.  When  the  gas  is  purified,  it  passes 
to  the  gasometer,  ready  for  distribution. 

On  burning  the  ordinary  lamp  or  candle,  a  precisely 
similar  operation  of  distillation,  or  decomposition  of  the 
materials,  and  production  of  gas  or  vapor,  takes  place. 
The  oil  or  melted  tallow  ascends  to  the  wick  by  capillary 
attraction  ;  it  then  comes  in  contact  with  the  lower  part 
of  the  flame,  is  decomposed  by  the  heat,  and  converted 
into  gas,  which  immediately  supplies  the  flame,  producing 
light  and  heat.  In  the  house  fire,  or  in  lamps  or  candles,7^ 
the  gas  is  consumed  as  soon  as  produced  ;  but  in  gas- 
works, after  production,  it  has  to  be  stored  and  kept  ready 
for  the  time  it  may  be  required,  then  to  be  conveyed  some- 
times through  a  distance  of  several  miles  of  pipes  before 
it  is  burned. 

Gas-consumers  have  generally  a  very  vague  idea  of  the 
quality  of  gas  ;  defects  of  every  denomination  which  exist 
on  their  premises,  whereby  the  supply  or  light  is  rendered 
inadequate,  is  often  attributed  to  the  badness  of  the  gas, 
and,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on  burners  and 
glasses,  frequently  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  the  light  that 
might  be  derived  is  lost  ;  the  consumer  then  complains  of 
the  high  price,  or  the  ubad  gas,"  little  imagining  this  to 
be  the  result  of  his  own  mismanagement  ;  yet  such  is  the 
fact.  But  gas,  like  every  other  article  in  commerce; 
varies  in  quality,  depending  on  the  description  of  coal 


MANUFACTURE   OF    GAS.  31 

from  which  it  is  produced  or  distilled,  and  the  manner  of 
operation. 

Many  people  imagine,  when  a  flame  gives  forth  smoke, 
that  it  arises  from  the  bad  quality  of  the  gas,  whereas  the 
very  reverse  is  the  case.  This  smoke  is  the  illuminating 
constituent  —  indeed  the  source  of  light ;  and  if  it  be  al- 
lowed to  escape  unconsumed,  it  is  not  the  fault  of  the  gas, 
but  the  manner  it  is  employed. 

.This  is  easily  demonstrated  with  an  ordinary  oil  lamp  ; 
if  the  cotton  of  this  be  properly  trimmed,  and  the  glass 
chimney  suitably  adjusted,  the  flame  is  clear  and  bright ; 
but  on  removing  the  glass,  or  allowing  an  excess  of  wick, 
the  flame  becomes  dull,  and  emits  smoke  in  abundance. 
Or  with  an  ordinary  tallow  candle,  if  left  unsnuffed,  it 
becomes  smoky,  and  gives  but  little  light.  In  like  manner, 
gas  being  improperly  used,  an  excess  of  smoke  and  dimin- 
ished light  must  be  expected. 

The  means  of  preventing  smoke  consist  in  having  suit- 
able burners  or  glasses,  and  not  permitting  a  superabun- 
dance of  gas  to  issue  ;  for  if  the  flame  of  an  argand  or 
other  burner  be  allowed  to  pass  certain  bounds,  the  an- 
noyance in  question,  and  waste,  are  the  consequences  ;  but 
when  adjusted  to  the  proper  limits,  the  flame  is  clear  and 
bright,  emitting  little,  if  any,  smoke. 

In  defining  the  quality  of  gas,  there  are  two  distinct 
considerations :  the  first,  its  power  of  giving  light ;  the 
second,  its  freedom  from  impurities.  Gas  may  be  of 
good  illuminating  power,  yet  so  contaminated  with  impu- 
rities as  to  be  insupportable  ;  or  it  may  be  perfectly  free 
from  these,  yet  very  deficient  as  an  illuminating  agent. 
Therefore  when  speaking  of  good  gas,  it  should  be  free 
from  impurities,  and  rich  in  illuminating  qualities. 

Gas,  as  it  leaves  the  retorts,  is  totally  unfit  for  combus- 


32  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

tion  as  a  light-giving  agent.  It  burns  with  a  lurid  smoky 
flame,  and  is  heavily  charged  with  sulphur  and  ammonia, 
both  of  which  must,  according  to  law,  be  removed.  At 
present  there  is  no  known  process  for  removing  these 
which  does  not  also  remove  some  of  the  light-giving 
materials. 

Formerly,  in  England,  the  quality  of  gas  was  not  so 
much  considered  as  at  present,  and  was  entirely  dependent 
on  the  company  supplying  ;  but  of  late  years,  the  gas  com- 
panies of  nearly  all  the  towns  Q,nd  cities  of  Great  Britain 
are  bound  to  supply  gas  of  a  specified  illuminating  power, 
and  free  from  impurities.  In  many  places,  responsible 
inspectors  or  chemical  examiners  are  appointed  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  the  quality  of  the  gas  ;  and  it  is  to  be 
regretted  this  is  not  more  general,  as  it  would  tend  to 
establish  that  confidence  between  the  consumers  and  cofca- 
panies  which  is  desirable  for  both  parties. 

The  English  law  on  this  subject  is  as  follows :  "  The 
quality  of  the  common  gas  supplied  by  any  gas  company 
shall  be,  with  respect  to  its  illuminating  power,  at  a  dis- 
tance as  near  as  may  be  of  one  thousand  yards  from  the 
works,  such  as  to  produce  from  an  argand  burner  having 
fifteen  holes  and  a  seven-inch  chimney,  consuming  five 
feet  of  gas  an  hour,  a  light  equal  in  intensity  to  the  light 
produced  by  not  less  than  twelve  sperm  candles  of  six  to 
the  pound,  each  burning  one  hundred  and  twenty  grains 
an  hour ;  and  the  quality  of  cannel  gas  supplied  by  any 
gas  company  shall,  with  respect  to  its  illuminating  power 
at  the  distance  aforesaid,  be  such  as  to  produce  from  a 
bat's-wing  or  fish-tail  burner,  consuming  five  feet  of  gas 
per  hour,  a  light  equal  in  intensity  to  twenty  such  sperm 
candles  ;  and  each  such  gas  shall,  with  respect  to  its  pu- 
rity, be  so  far  free  from  ammonia  and  sulphuretted  hy- 


MANUFACTURE   OF^AS.,  ,  33 

drogen  that  it  shall  not  discolor  either  turmeric  paper,  or 
paper  imbued  with  acetate,  or  -carbonate  of  lead,  when 
these  tests  are  exposed  to  a  current  of  gas,  issuing  for 
one  minute  under  a  pressure  of  five-tenths  of  an  inch  of 
water,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than  twenty  grains  of 
sulphur  in  any  form  in  one  hundred  cubic  feet  of  gas." 

According  to  this  law,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  general 
conditions  stipulated  in  defining  the  quality  of  gas,  are : 
that  an  argand  burner  having  fifteen  holes,  and  consuming 
five  cubic  feet  per  hour  of  the  gas  supplied,  shall  give  at 
least  the  same  light  as  twelve  sperm  candles,  each  con- 
suming 120  grains  per  hour ;  that  the  gas  shall  be  free 
from  ammonia,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  that  it  shall 
contain  the  minimum  quantity  of  sulphur  that  can  be 
practically  effected. 

In  this  country,  the  illuminating  power  of  gas  as  com- 
pared with  the  English  standard  is  somewhat  higher, 
ranging  from  14  to  16  candle  power. 

The  manner  of  comparing  the  relative  light  from  the 
gas  and  candles  is  of  the  greatest  simplicity  ;  and  to  make 
this  understood,  it  must  first  be  stated  that  the  rays  of 
flame,  when  intercepted  by  a  solid  substance,  produce  a 
shadow,  and  the  density  of  this  shadow  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  intensity  of  the  light.  .So,  if  on  a  table 
covered  with  a  white  cloth,  or  a  large  sheet  of  white 
paper,  two  lighted  candles  be  placed,  one  at  each  end,  and 
exactly  midway  between  them  a  pencil  or  similar  object 
be  fixed  perpendicularly  on  the  table,  then  a  shadow  will 
be  shown  from  each  light ;  and  should  they  be  exactly  of 
the  same  density,  then  the  lights  would  be  equal. 

Now  if  at  one  end  of  a  long  table,  provided  as  before, 
we  place  the  twelve  candles  lighted,  and  at  the  other  end 
the  gas-burner  attached  to  a  meter,  so  as  to  show  accu- 
3 


34  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

rately  the  quantity  consumed  per  hour,  and  if  a  pencil  be 
fixed  in  a  perpendicular  position  exactly  midway  between 
the  two  lights  under  examination,  then  on  the  flame  of  the 
gas  being  regulated  until  the  shadows  are  alike  in  density, 
or  the  two  lights  equal  in  intensity,  an  observation  of  the 
meter  will  give  the  quantity  of  gas  required  to  produce 
the  light  equal  to  the  candles.  In  practice,  there  is  a 
much  simpler  way  to  arrive  at  the  result,  but  it  would  be 
too  lengthy  to  describe,  and  would  answer  no  purpose. 

In  addition  to  the  illuminating  power,  there  is  the  other 
important  requisition  in  gas  —  that  is,  its  purity,  or  free- 
dom from  pernicious  qualities ;  and  although  in  all  large 
towns  and  cities  there  are  qualified  managers  and  en- 
gineers who  carefully  superintend  the  operation  of  rourifica- 
tion,  there  are,  however,  other  places  which  have  not  this 
advantage,  and  for  which  the  following  observations  are 
intended. 

Impure  gas  is  beneficial  to  no  one,  and  is  alike  prejudi- 
cial to  the  works  supplying  as  to  the  consumer.  It  brings 
discredit,  prevents  the  full  development  of  the  business  of 
a  company,  and  when  it  occurs  can  only  be  through  igno- 
rance, carelessness,  or  accident.  When  gas  is  impure,  it 
gives  forth  a  very  disagreeable  odor  during  its  combus- 
tion ;  it  changes  the  colors  of  ornamental  furniture  hang- 
ings and  paper ;  it  tarnishes  plate,  as  well  as  several  -of 
the  metals ;  it  speedily  deposits  a  cloudy  tinge  on  gas 
chimneys  ;  but  above  all  it  is  unwholesome,  and  exceed- 
ingly disagreeable  to  persons  who  breathe  the  atmosphere 
in  which  it  is  consumed. 

A  gas  company  has  been  known  to  sustain  a  heavy  loss 
of  business  occasioned  from  supplying  impure  gas.  A 
large  street  in  the  city  was  composed  principally  of  silver- 
smiths' and  jewellers'  shops.  Gas  had  been  tried  by  a 


MANUFACTURE   OF   GAS.  35 

few  of  these  establishments,  but  its  impurities  speedily* 
tarnislied  the  plate,  etc.,  to  such  a  serious  extent,  which 
compelled  its  use  being  discontinued ;   but  years  after- 
wards, when  a  proper  system  of  purification  was  applied, 
in  a  short  time  eyery  shop  adopted  it. 

Many  have  been  and  are  the  annoyances  experienced  in 
some  places  by  impure  gas  being  supplied,  and  persons, 
after  having  incurred  considerable  expense  in  fittings, 
etc.,  to  obtain  this  light,  have  been  much  disappointed  on 
that  account,  and  have  eventually  abandoned  it. 

The  ordinary  impurities  in  gas  are  few,  and  the  oper- 
ation of  detecting  them  is  simple.  All  that  is  required 
for  'the  purpose  are  three  small  books  of  test  papers,, 
namely,  turmeric,  blue  litmus,  and  acetate  of  lead,  which 
may  be  had  of  most  operative  chemists  for  a  mere  trifle  ; 
with  these  the  consumer  can  himself  test  the  purity  of  the 
gas  supplied  to  him,  as  will  be  now  described. 

The  ordinary  impurities  are  ammonia,  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, carbonic  acid,  and  sometimes  in  small  quantities 
a  compound  of  sulphur  and  carbon,  all  of  which,  of  course, 
exist  in  a  gaseous  state  in  combination. 

To  detect  the  presence  of  ammonia,  take  a  leaf  of  tur- 
meric paper,  which  has  a  peculiar  yellow  color,  and  hold 
it  within  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  a  fishtail  or  bat's- 
wing  burner,  and  let  the  gas  impinge  upon  it  for  about 
half  a  minute.  Should  the  paper  remain  unchanged  in 
color,  the  gas  is  free  from  this  impurity ;  but  should  it 
change  from  its  yellow  color  to  brown,  then  the  presence 
of  ammonia  is  established,  and  according  to  the  deepness 
of  the  color  so  will  the  quantity  be  indicated.  But  in  the 
event  of  the  test  being  applied  for  a  protracted  period, 
even  when  the  gas  is  moderately  pure,  the  presence  of 
ammonia  will  be  shown.  However,  a  slight  quantity  of 


36  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

this  is  acknowledged  to  be  actually  indispensable,  and  by 
no  means  injurious. 

The"  next  impurity,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  is  much 
more  pernicious  than  the  former.  To  detect  this,  take  a 
leaf  of  the  acetate  of  lead  paper,  act  as  before,  and  if, 
after  being  exposed  to  the  gas  for  half  a  minute,  the  test 
paper  retains  its  original  whiteness,  then  this  impurity 
does  not  exist ;  but  should  it  become  brown,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  is  present. 

Carbonic  acid  is  injurious  on  account  of  its  deteriorating 
the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  with  which  it  is  com- 
bined ;  for,  according  to  good  authority,  the  presence  of 
one  per  cent,  of  this  impurity  in  gas  diminishes  its  light 
nearly  one-tenth  part.  To  detect  this,  take  a  lca^;  of  the 
blue  litmus  paper,  and  act  as  before,  when  the  presence 
of  carbonic  acid  will  change  the  color  of  the  test  to  red  ; 
on  the  contrary,  if  the  gas  be  pure,  it  will  retain  its  blue 
color. 

The  last  impurity,  the  compound  of  sulphur  and  carbon, 
has  been  considered  by  a  chemist  of  great  ability  to  be  of 
little  importance.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means  the 
general  opinion  ;  but  as  the  method  of  detecting  its  pres- 
ence is  too  complicated  for  the  general  reader,  it  will  not 
be  entered  into  here.  When  this  exists,  it  is  readily  per- 
ceived by  a  peculiar  disagreeable,  suffocating,  sulphurous 
odor  given  off  when  gas  containing  it  is  burned  in  a  close 
apartment. 

In  -  making  these  trials,  only  a  small  quantity  of  gas 
escapes,  being  about  the  twentieth  part  of  a  cubic  foot  at 
each  operation,  so  that  not  the  slightest  inconvenience 
beyond  the  odor  for  a  few  minutes  is  to  be  apprehended. 
Should  the  gas  not  be  sufficiently  pure  to  withstand  these 
tests,  and  the  consumer  be  annoyed  in  consequence,  upon 


MANUFACTURE   OF   GAS.  37 

a  proper  representation  of  the  complaint  being  made  to 
the  company  supplying,  undoubtedly  they  would  devote 
themselves  to  correct  the  evil ;  but  at  the  same  time  the 
consumer  should  guard  against  any  unnecessary  com- 
plaints. 

Connected  with  the  manufacture  of  gas  is  its  distribu- 
tion to  the  streets  and  houses.  For  this  object  it  has  to 
be  expelled  with  a  certain  degree  of  force,  technically 
called  "pressure."  Some  conception  of  this  may  be 
formed  by  the  reader  breathing  in  the  gentlest  manner 
possible,  which  is  about  equivalent  to  the  pressure  with 
which  gas  is  consumed  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances ;  and  by  blowing  with  a  slight  force  is  equivalent 
to  the  greatest  pressure  existing  in  the  main  pipes  of  gas 
companies.  It  is  therefore  evident  the  fears  sometimes 
expressed  of  the  "gas  bursting  the  pipes"  have  not  the 
slightesrfoundation. 

Although  this  pressure  is  of  such  little  power,  it  is  indi- 
cated by  instruments  for  the  purpose,  on  a  scale  divided 
into  inches  and  tenths  of  inches.  The  first  instance  may 
be  equal  to  two  or  three-tenths*  pressure,  and  when  blow- 
ing with  slight  force  will  be  about  equivalent  to  from 
three  to  five  inches'  pressure  —  a  degree  of  force  which  very 
seldom  exists  outside  a  gas-works.  These  observations 
on  pressure  will  be  found  of  some  importance  in  a  future 
chapter,  when  treating  on  burners,  glasses,  etc. 

When  lighting  by  gas -was  first  introduced,  consumers 
were  supplied  by  contract,  that  is,  a  certain  sum  per  annum 
was  charged  for  each  of  the  various  classes  of  burners, 
to  be  lighted  from  sunset  to  a  specified  hour.  This  system 
was  accompanied '  with  serious  loss  to  companies,  who, 
having  no  means  of  shutting  off  the  supply  at  the  hour 
stipulated,  the  gas  was  left  entirely  at  the  discretion  of  the 


38  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE 

consumer,  and  the  result  was  continued  and  serious  loss. 
A  much  better  system  was  adopted  in  France,  where  it 
was  the  custom  to  attach  a  tap  to  the  supply-pipe  of  every 
house,  which-  was  opened  and  shut  .by  an  employe  of  the 
company  precisely  at  the  time  contracted  for,  thus  avoid- 
ing part  of  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  less  scrupulous  class 
of  the  community.  The  system  now  universally  adopted 
is  to  supply  gas  only  by  meter,  which  is  alike  advanta- 
geous to  companies  and  consumers,  and  is  the  only  equit- 
able way  that  it  can  be  employed. 


CONSIDERATIONS    ON    ADOPTING   GAS    LIGHTING.         39 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CONSIDERATIONS    ON   ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING. 

MANY  obstacles  at  one  time  existed  against  the  adoption 
of  gas  as  a  means  of  illumination.  It  was  very  expen- 
sive, and  the  prices  of  fittings  and  apparatus  connected 
with  its  introduction  were  costly.  Companies  frequently 
required  advances  before  they  would  supply ;  and  they 
sometimes  insisted  on  the  incoming  tenant  paying  the  gas 
debt  of  his  predecessor,  although  the  persons  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  each  other.  The  consumer  often  paid 
a  high  price  for  the  supply-pipe,  and  had  in  most  cases  to 
purchase  the  meter.  All  these  impediments  prevented 
many  who  had  the  desire  to  burn  gas  from  carrying  it 
into  effect. 

These  obstacles  —  at  least  in  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Boston,  and  we  believe  generally  throughout  the  coun- 
try—  have  been  removed.  The  cost  of  gas-fittings  is 
reduced  very  considerably ;  no  charges  are  now  made  by 
many  companies  either  for  supply-pipes  or  meter  ;  nor  is 
a  deposit  now  required  from  any  responsible  person.  In 
other  respects,  consumers  have  many  advantages  which 
were  never  conceived  some  years  ago  ;  and  by  these  con- 
cessions companies  have  advanced  materially  their  own 
interests,  in  giving  every  facility  for  purchasing  and  con- 
suming their  production,  and  extending  their  operations. 

When  the  decision  is  made  to  adopt  this  light,  it  is  of 


40  THE    GAS-CONSUMER'S    GUIDE. 

importance  to  employ  a  skilful  man  as  gas-fitter,  for 
perhaps  their  are  few  branches  of  business  where  there ' 
exist  comparatively  so  many  incompetent  tradesmen  ;  and 
it  consequently  happens  that,  in  endeavoring  to  purchase 
at  the  cheapest  rate,  the  very  reverse  is  the  case  ;  and  the 
householder  has  to  contend  with  much  annoyance  and 
trouble  before  he  can  comfortably  enjoy  the  admission  of 
gas  into  his  dwelling. 

It  has  been  observed  by  an  authority  on  this  point : 
"  There  is  economy  in  employing  the  most  intelligent  and 
experienced  workmen,  although  their  charges,  in  the  first 
instance,  may  be  the  highest.  When  gas-fittings  are 
judiciously  arranged,  and  constructed  of  good  materials, 
they  constitute  the  most  durable  portions  of  the  fixtures 
of  a  house.  If,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  put  up  by  a 
blundering  fitter,  who  professes  to  work  cheaper  than  his 
neighbors,  it  is  probable  that  frequent  repairs  will  be  re- 
quired ;  that  there  will  be  a  deficiency  of  gas  in  some 
parts  of  the  house  ;  or  what  is  still  more  disagreeable, 
that  there  will  be  an  escape  of  gas,  or  an  obstruction  (by 
the  condensation  of  vapor)  in  those  parts  of  the  pipes 
which  pass  between  the  ceilings  and  floors.  In  these,  as 
in  all  other  matters,  there  needs  only  the  exercise  of  a 
little  common  sense  to  insure  success  ;  the  expense  of 
altering  and  rearranging  gas-fittings  constructed  by  un- 
skilful workmen  very  often  amounts  to  more  than  half 
their  original  cost." 

Although  the  gas-fitter  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  fulfil 
all  the  necessary  arrangements  in  the  introduction  of  gas 
to  the  premises,  still  the  consumer  should  be  in  a  position 
to  insist  on  some  material  points  for  his  convenience, 
safety,  and  economy.  The  following  suggestions  are 


CONSIDERATIONS    ON   ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING.        41 

therefore  offered  for  his  guidance,  both  on  the  introduction 
and  general  use  of  gas  :  — 

The  company's  service-pipe  conveying  the  gas  from  the 
street  to  the  house,  in  this  country,  is  always  of  iron,  and 
should  be  continued  (necessarily  at  the  expense  of  the 
consumer)  to  the  locality  where  the  meter  is  placed  ;  and 
the  main  tap,  or  valve,  fixed  on  the  end  of  the  iron  pipe, 
just  at  the  entrance  to  the  meter. 

The  main  tap,  or -valve,  for  shutting  off  the  gas  from 
the  premises,  should  always  be  placed  in  a  position  easy 
of  access,  for  the  purpose  of  turning  on  and  off  every 
night,  or  for  any  sudden  emergency  ;  and  it  is  imperative 
that  the  pipes  should  be  so  placed  as  to  accomplish  this 
object. 

A  locality  of  moderate  temperature  should  be  carefully 
selected  for  the  position  of  the  meter  ;  for  if  a  wet  meter 
were  exposed  to  frosty  weather,  the  water  would  be  liable 
to  freeze  ;  and  if  to  a  warm  situation,  it  would  evaporate, 
and  afterwards  be  condensed  in  the  pipes,  and  so  obstruct 
the  passage  of  the  gas,  or  cause  that  disagreeable  effect 
called  "jumping  lights."  It  is  true  the  dry  meter  avoids 
this  ;  but  there  is  the  important  question  of  measurement 
to  be  considered ;  for  as  gas  expands  by  heat,  it  follows 
that  if  the  meter  be  placed  in  a  very  warm  situation,  the 
gas,  during  its  passage,  would  increase  in  volume,  and 
the  consumer  in  consequence  would  have  to  pay  more 
than  actually  necessary. 

All  places  of  public  resort  should  be  supplied  by  at 
least  two  meters,  which  ought  to  communicate  with  each 
other,  so  that  in  the  event  of  one  of  them  failing — a 
frequent  occurrence  with  the  wet  meter,  caused  by  the 
evaporation  of  water  —  the  other  continues  the  supply, 
which,  although  perhaps  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the 


42  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

establishment,  yet  avoids  the  alarm  and  confusion  attend- 
ing a  total  extinction  of  light ;  and  the  defect  can  after- 
wards be  easily  remedied  at  leisure. 

The  meter  once  fixed,  the  consumer  should  not  allow  it 
to  be  removed  without  first  giving  notice  to  the  company  ; 
but  supposing,  by  extraordinary  circumstances,  the  gas- 
fitter  cannot  obtain  light  otherwise  than  by  displacing  it, 
the  consumer  is  then  bound  without  delay  to  inform  the 
company  of  such  a  change  ;  also  wh«n  it  is  refixed  ;  and 
thus  prevent  annoyance  and  disagreements  which  might 
otherwise  occur. 

When  price  is  not  a  consideration,  the  pipes,  in  exposed 
positions,  or  between  floorings,  or  outside  buildings,  should 
be  always  of  iron,  and  if  galvanized,  or  coated  with  zinc, 
would  be  preferred.  ^ 

In-  manufactories  of  every  kind,  iron  pipe  should  be 
exclusively  used  throughout ;  and  these  may  even  be 
employed  for  the  pendants,  brackets,  etc.,  being  exceed- 
ingly strong,  and  of  the  greatest  durability. 

When  iron  pipes  are  buried  in  the  walls,  it  is  imperative 
that  they  should  be  galvanized  and  varnished  internally, 
otherwise  there  are  probabilities  of  continuous  stoppages 
in  the  supply,  by  deposits  of  rust,  etc. ;  and  to  remedy 
this  the  paper  hangings,  plastering,  and  painting  are  nec- 
essarily seriously  injured.  The  softer  metals,  or  compo- 
sition pipes,  would  in  one  sense  be  better  for  the  purpose, 
but  they  are  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the 
lime  in  the  mortar.  Where  it  is  a  question  of  economy, 
composition  pipes  (composed  of  lead,  tin,  and  antimony) 
can  be  advantageously  used  for  the  interior  of  dwellings, 
shops,  etc. ;  they  are  very  durable ;  are  more  sightly 
than  those  of  iron  ;  but  they  should  not  be  buried  in  the 
mortar. 


CONSIDERATIONS   ON   ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING.        43 

All  outside  lights,  such  as  lanterns,  should  have  a  tap 
inside  and  within  reach,  so  as  to  shut  off  or  regulate  the 
supply  ;  great  loss  has  occurred  for  want  of  care  on  this 
point,  through  gas  escaping,  when  the  consumer  has  com- 
plained, with  apparent  reason,  saying  he  "  had  not  con- 
sumed any  more  gas  than  before  "  ;  but  here  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  meter  indicates  the  quantity  which 
PASSES,  without  any  reference  as  to  how  it  is,  employed  ; 
and  gas,  like  every  other  commodity,  when  delivered  to  the 
consumer,  requires  him  to  Qxercise  every  care  to  prevent 
it  being  wasted  or  lost ;  and,  if  he  permits  this,  it  must 
necessarily  be  at  his  cost. 

In  all  cases  where  goods  are  kept  in  the  highest  part 
of  an  apartment  or  store,  as  in  shops  or  libraries,  etc.,  it 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  insure  good  ventilation  in 
the  ceiling,  so  as  to  carry  off  the  heated  air  and  vapor 
formed  by  the  combustion  of  the  gas.  The  lower  part  of 
a  room  may  be  only  at  a  moderate  temperature,  whereas 
above  the  level  of  top  of  door,  and  near  the  ceiling,  the 
heat  will  be  almost  insupportable  ;  so  that,  in  consequence 
of  the  absence  of  proper  ventilation,  goods  are  often 
spoiled  and  the  gas  condemned. 

Whenever  there  is  an  odor  of  escape  of  gas,  emanating 
from  the  street,  cellar,  drain,  cistern,  sewer,  or  anywhere 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  consumer's  prem- 
ises, written  notices  should  be  sent  without  delay  to  the 
company,  who,  regarding  their  own  interest,  would  im- 
mediately attend  to  it,  and  thus  prevent  annoyances  or 
accident. 

Whenever  there  are  signs  of  an  escape  in  the  interior 
of  a  building,  there  is*  no  occasion  for  alarm,  but  imme- 
diate and  prompt  care  must  be  employed.  Lights  of  any 
kind  should  be  avoided,  the  main  tap  turned  off,  the  doors 


44  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

and  upper  parts  of  the  windows  opened  (as  gas,  by  its 
lightness,  ascends  and  escapes  very  readily  at  the  highest 
part  of  an  apartment),  then  by  proper  supervision  a  tap 
may  probably  be  discovered  to  be  left  turned  on ;  or  if 
there  are  any  sliding  or  hydraulic  lights  (to  which  we 
shall  refer  hereafter) ,  they  should  be  supplied  with  water  ; 
or  if  the  pipes  are  exposed,  and  within  the  reach  of  chil- 
dren, a  small  puncture  may  have  been  made,  which  can 
be  temporarily  repaired  with  a  little  grease,  white  lead, 
or  soap  placed  upon  it,  and  afterwards  should  be  sub- 
stantially done  as  soon  as  possible.  The  defect  being 
remedied,  the  doors  and  windows  should  be  left  open  for 
a  short  time,  when  the  lights  can  be  used. 

But  if  the  evil  be  not  discovered,  the  consumer  should, 
under  no  circumstances,  attempt  to  find  it  by  means  of  a 
lighted  candle,  but  send  for  his  gas-fitter,  who  is  experi- 
enced in  the  matter,  is  responsible  for  the  result,  and  thus 
avoid  all  risk.  The  odor  of  escaping  gas,  whether  on 
the  premises  of  the  consumer  or  not,  should  never  be 
neglected,  otherwise  it  becomes  unhealthy,  and  sometimes 
very  serious.  A  few  years  ago  a  poor  woman  was  found 
suffocated  in  her  bed,  from  the  gas  which  had  escaped 
from  the  main  in  the  street  having  passed  through  the 
ground,  and  so  entered  her  cottage,  and  causing  the  dis- 
aster. 

In  lighting  burners,  particularly  in  gas  or  cooking 
stoves,  care  should  be  taken  to  apply  the  light  immediately 
the  gas  is  turned  on,  otherwise  it  is  sometimes  forgotten, 
and  there  is  an  accumulation  of  it  in  the  apartment,  which 
causes  unnecessary  nuisance.  When  this  precaution  with 
the  stove  is  not  attended  to,  often  a  disagreeable  report 
occurs  when  lighting,  which,  however,  frightens  more 
than  harms. 


CONSIDERATIONS   ON   ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING.        45 

Accidents  from  explosions  of  gas  are  exceedingly  rare  ; 
and  one  great  preventive  is  to  shut  off  the  main  tap  at 
night ;  for  these  accidents  have  happened  through  people 
turning  the  small  tap  to  extinguish  the  light,  when,  by  the 
slightest  mischance  imaginable,  they  have  inadvertently 
turned  it  on  again,  and  the  gas  escaping  during  the  whole 
of  the  night,  it  fills  the  apartment,  and  the  greatest  dan- 
ger, on  the  approach  of  a  light,  is  the  serious  consequence. 
If  a  similar  occurrence  happened  during  the  day,  the 
odor  would  cause  it  to  be  detected  long  before  it  became 
perilous.  Hence  the  necessity  of  turning  off  the  supply 
of  gas  at  night. 

Many  erroneous  impressions  exist  as  regard  explosions  ; 
but  these  can  only  occur  when  a  large  quantity  of  gas  is 
allowed  to  escape  and  intermix  with  the  air  in  an  apart- 
ment, or  other  enclosed  place,  when,  on  the  approach  of  a 
light,  an  accident  might  happen ;  however,  the  smell 
always  gives  ample  timely  notice,  unless,  as  in  the  case 
just  mentioned,  the  gas  has  been  permitted  to  issue  for 
several  hours  together. 

Gas-lights  should  never  be  placed  in  cellars,  or  similar 
confined  places,  without  ventilation  by  an  opening  in  the 
highest  part  for  the  escape  of  the  gas,  should  it,  by  acci- 
dent, be  left  turned  on  ;  and  another  lower  down,  for  the 
admission  of  air.  It  is  always  better  there  should  be 
provided  a  tap  on  the  outside,  in  addition  to  those  inside, 
and  thus  avoid  the  chance  of  accident. 

In  large  establishments,  where  it  may  be  necessary  to 
have  a  few  lights  burning  during  the  whole  of  the  night, 
as  at  the  entrance  of  buildings,  these  should  be  supplied 
by  a  separate  small  meter,  so  that  the  gas  exists  only  on 
that  part  of  the  premises  where  required. 

In  places  where  the  gas  is  not  turned  off  regularly, 


46  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

the  main  tap  is  liable  to  become  set  or  bound  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  render  it  utterly  useless.  From  this  cause 
conflagrations  have  occurred,  arising  from  an  escape 
igniting,  and  at  the  all-important  moment  when  it  was 
desirable  to  shut  the  tap,  it  was  found  impossible.  There- 
fore they  should  be  seen  to  from  time  to  time ;  and  if 
found  difficult  of  action,  the  attention  of  the  gas-fitter 
called  thereto.  Gas  taps  of  every  denomination  should 
be  what  is  termed  "stopped" — that  is,  when  the  key  is 
turned  to  the  extreme  point  in  one  direction,  the  gas  is 
full  on ;  and  when  in  the  opposite,  it  is  shut  completely 
off. 

GAS-FITTINGS,    PENDANTS,    BRACKETS,    ETC. 

The  present  fashion  of  light  and  elegant  designs  for 
gasaliers  and  other  apparatus  for  the  display  of  gas-light- 
ing, is  a  strong  inducement  for  the  further  development 
of  that  art ;  and  the  amount  of  excellence  attained  by  the 
manufacturers  of  these  articles  is  calculated  to  suit  the 
tastes  of  the  most  wealthy  and  capricious,  as  well  as  the 
most  economical  and  unpretending. 

The  forms  of  gasaliers,  brackets,  pendants,  and  lustres, 
are  so  varied,  that  their  selection  is  entirely  a  matter  of 
taste.  Cheapness  in  this  case  is  not  incompatible  with 
usefulness  and  durability.  For  passages,  staircases,  bed- 
rooms, etc.,  very  little  ornament  is  required  —  the  less  the 
better.  In  the  most  conspicuous  parts  of  a  house,  the 
dimensions  of  the  rooms,  the '  style  in  which  they  are 
furnished,  and  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  applied, 
all  deserve  consideration.  The  colors  of  the  walls  and 
ceilings,  and  furniture  of  a  room,  have  much  to  do  with 
lighting  it  effectively. 


CONSIDERATIONS   ON  ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING.        47 

These  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  should  be 
carefully  considered,  so  that  the  colors  which  reflect  Kght 
and  harmonize  in  their  various  combinations,  may  be 
chosen  in  preference  to  others.  The  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  light  required  for  rooms  of  equal  dimensions, 
one  of  which  shall  have  dark-colored  walls  and  draperies, 
and  the  other,  those  which  are  bright  and  cheerful,  will 
be  as  two  to  one. 

•  In  choosing  gas-fittings,  it  is  better  to  see  the  articles 
themselves  than  to  order  them  from  drawings,  otherwise 
there  may  be  some  mistake  or  disappointment  as  to  sizes 
and  relative  proportions.  To  this  may  be  added,  the 
drawings  of  ornamental  apparatus  like  those  in  question, 
are  very  deceptive  ;  a  good  drawing  will  often  set  off  a 
very  bad  design. 

When  a  gas-fitter  is  employed,  it  is  best  to  have  the 
work  done  by  contract,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
sizes,  quantities,  and  situation  of  the  various  kinds  of 
tubing  are  distinctly  specified.  No  respectable  tradesman, 
who  properly  understands  his  business,  will  object  to  this. 
It  is  more  satisfactory  to  all  parties  to  know  beforehand 
what  is  to  be  done,  and  how  much  is  to  be  paid. 

A  most  convenient  apparatus,  sometimes  employed  in 
dwellings  where  gas  exists,  is  the  hydraulic  gasalier, 
which  is  constructed  with  chains  and  counterbalance 
weights,  for  the  purpose  of  being  raised  or  lowered  at 
will.  In  this  the  gas  is  prevented  from  escaping  by  the 
intervention  of  a  column  of  water  in  the  tube,  poured  into 
the  cup  at  top.  This  apparatus  has  the  disadvantage  that 
the  water  evaporates,  or  by  a  sudden  jerk  in  raising  or 
lowering  it,  the  water  is  caused  to  overflow,  when  in  con- 
sequence of  the  deficiency  of  water  there  is  a  probability 
of  the  gas  escaping  on  the  apparatus  being  drawn  down, 


48  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

and  if  allowed  to  continue  so  for  several  hours,  would 
become  dangerous  on  a  person  entering  the  room  with  a 
light.  Such  accidents  are  exceedingly  rare,  and  by  a 
little  care  they  can  be  prevented  altogether.  To  avoid  this 
inconvenience,  the  hydraulic  gasalier  should  be  attended 
to  every  two  or  three  months,  simply  by  raising  it  to  the 
highest,  and  then  pouring  a  small  quantity  of  water  into 
the  cup  at  top  until  nearly  full.  If  a  teaspoonful  of  sweet 
oil  be  poured  on  to  the  water,  it  will  prevent  the  evap- 
oration, and  the  care  required  will  be  less  frequent. 

Whenever  there  is  the  odor  of  escape  of  gas  in  a  house 
where  hydraulic  gasaliers  exist,  the  attention  of  the  oc- 
cupants should  be  directed  to  them  ;  but  on  no  account  to 
use  a  light  when  supplying  water  ;  for  although  the  quan- 
tity of  gas  in  the  apartment  may  be  small,  yet  as  that 
ascends  and  floats  in  the  upper  part,  the  presence  of  a 
light  there  may  probably  be  dangerous. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  sliding  lights,  called  telescopic, 
which  dispense  with  the  water,  chains,  and  counterbalance 
weights.  In  these  one  tube  passes  within  another,  similar 
to  the  instrument  from  which  it  is  named,  and  a  cork- 
tight  joint  prevents  the  gas  escaping.  These  are  much 
used  for  single-pendant  lights. 

In  occupations  where  a  portable  light  is  required  to 
replace  the  lamp  or  candle,  an  apparatus  similar  to  a 
candlestick,  to  which  the  gas  is  conveyed  by  a  flexible 
tube,  supplies  the  want.  u  "With  this  the  gas-light  may  be 
conveyed  from  one  place  to  another  with  the  greatest 
facility. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  instructions  as  to  the 
kind  of  apparatus  to  be  employed ;  this  will  be  ascer- 
tained, by  those  who  may  be  desirous  of  using  gas, 


CONSIDERATIONS   ON  ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING.        49 

observing  the  method  adopted  by  their  friends  or   ac- 
quaintance. 


GAS    STOVES   AND    GAS-COOKING   APPARATUS. 

Gas  stoves,  when  properly  constructed,  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  for  small  offices  or  apartments  having 
no  fireplaces,  where  they  can  be  employed  with  consider- 
able advantage,  both  as  regards  comfort  and  economy, 
and  in  some  instances  supersede  the  ordinary  stove. 

These  apparatus  have,  however,  been  frequently  con- 
demned, on  account  of  the  odor  arising  from  them.  This 
has  sometimes  been  attributed  to  the  peculiar  action  of  the 
lighted  gas  upon  the  iron  composing  the  stove  ;  and,  to 
remedy  this,  they  have  been  constructed  of  porcelain,  but 
without  abating  the  nuisance.  Sometimes  an  enormous 
chimney  has  been  attached  to  carry  away  the  products  of 
combustion,  but  with  no  good  result,  whilst  it  has  coun- 
teracted in  a  great  measure  the  good  effects  of  the  heat 
derived  from  the  stove,  by  allowing  the  principal  part  of 
the  warm  air  to  escape  from  the  apartment. 

It  is  well  known  that  three  or  four  lights  can  be  burnt 
in  a  moderate-sized  apartment  without  the  slightest  incon- 
venience of  a  disagreeable  smell ;  and  yet,  a  small  quan- 
tity, not  equal  to  one  light  in  a  gas  stove  as  sometimes 
constructed,  is  often  insupportable" ;  therefore  it  cannot 
arise  from  the  gas,  but  from  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
employed. 

Until  very  recently,  manufacturers  of  these  stoves  have 

followed  one  system  of  burner  ;  that  is,  a  large  ring  with 

a  series   of  holes,   producing  detached   flames   or  jets. 

INOW  there  are  two  great   objections  to  these  circular 

4 


50  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

burners.  The  first,  when  there  is  a  slight  excess  of  gas, 
they  smoke  imperceptibly,  and  serious  complaint  and  dis- 
satisfaction, with  loss  of  gas,  is  the  consequence  ;  secondly, 
when  they  are  turned  down  to  a  small  blue  flame,  often 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  odor,  it  is  in  reality 
increased,  producing  a  most  unhealthy  compound,  and 
causing  a  most  disagreeable  smell.  On  this  account  many 
have  been  compelled  to  abandon  the  method  of  heating 
apartments  by  gas. 

The  remedy  for  this  evil  is  simple  ;  for  instead  of  the 
ring  burner,  if  a  large  argand,  with  a  talc  or  iron  chimney, 
be  employed,  or  if  two  or  three  fish-tail  or  bat-wing  burn- 
ers be  substituted,  with  regulator  attached  to  prevent  the 
flame  from  rising  too  high  and  smoking,  then  the  comforts 
of  the  gas  stove  can  be  appreciated ;  for  there  is  neither 
smell  nor  smoke,  and  the  air  in  an  apartment  can  be  kept 
at  any  moderate  and  continuous  temperature  at  a  very 
trifling  cost. 

The  main  points  in  constructing  gas  stoves  are  to  have 
proper  burners,  with  regulators ;  that  they  should  be 
placed  near  the  floor,  so  as  to  heat  the  air  in  the  lower 
parts,  which  necessarily  ascends  and  warms  the  upper 
part  of  the  chamber  ;  and  every  facility  should  be  given 
for  the  free  radiation  of  the  heat :  in  short,  the  simplest 
gas  stove  is  always  the  most  effective. 

Some  gas  stoves  are  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  flame  of  the  gas  acts  on  an  incombustible  fibrous 
material  called  "  asbestos,"  which  speedily  becomes  incan- 
descent, and  produces  a  lively,  cheerful  appearance. 

Others  are  made  to  imitate  in  an  admirable  manner  an 
ordinary  coke  fire.  In  these  the  coke  is  substituted  by 
lumps  of  fire-clay  intermixed  with  asbestos,  of  the  size 
and  form  of  coke  ;  this  being  placed  in  an  ordinary  grate, 


CONSIDERATIONS    ON   ADOPTING   GAS   LIGHTING.         51 

the  flame  of  the  gas  is  caused  to  impinge  upon  the  mate- 
rial, which  quickly  becomes  incandescent,  and  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  good  coke  fire.  It  must  be  observed 
that  the  heat  from  gas  is  not  increased  by  these  means, 
as  people  would  suppose  in  witnessing  the  process,  but 
the  very  agreeable  and  lively  effect  is  a  strong  recom- 
mendation. 

Small  stoves  or  burners  are  frequently  employed  for 
continuously  heating  water,  etc.  An  objection  often  com- 
plained of  in  these  is  the  accumulation  and  deposit  of 
soot.  This  inconvenience  is  prevented  by  employing  the 
air,  or  atmospheric,  or  "Buusen"  burner,  in  which  a 
portion  of  air  intermixes  with  the  gas  in  its  passage  to  the 
orifices  of  the  burner  ;  the  flame  of  this  is  of  a  blue  color  ; 
there  is  neither  soot  nor  smoke,  and  the  heat  derived  is 
considerably  more  than  that  obtained  from  gas  in  the 
ordinary  process  of  burning,  inasmuch  as  the  soot  wasted 
in  that  method  is  consumed  with  the  air-burner. 

Gas-Cooking  Apparatus,  Baths,  etc.  —  Of  late  years, 
gas-cooking  apparatus  have  become  very  much  in  use, 
and  have  been  introduced  into  private  dwellings  with 
very  good  result.  The  apparatus  is  admirably  adapted 
for  the  French  style  of  cooking,  where  stews  are  the 
prevailing  dishes.  Roasting  by  gas  is  allowed  to  be  far 
superior  to  the  process  when  conducted  in  the  ordinary 
way ;  the  juices  of  the  meat  are  retained,  the  flavor  is 
increased,  and  there  is  less  loss.  Boiling,  baking,  and 
frying  are  done  with  greater  perfection  than  with  the 
open  fire,  on  account  of  the  facilities  with  which  the  heat 
can  be  increased  or  decreased  at  pleasure. 

Baths  are  also  heated  by  gas  in  a  most  economical 
manner,  they  being,  of  course,  constructed  expressly-fqr 
the  purpose. 


52  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

One  of  the  recent  and  important  applications  of  gas, 
is  its  adoption  as  an  agent  for  producing  motive  power, 
being  a  substitute  for  steam,  and  on  some  accounts  super- 
seding that.  In  the  gas  engine,  a  portion  of  gas  is  in- 
termixed with  a  given  proportion  of  air,  and  on  this 
compound  being  ignited  by  an  electric  spark,  the  motive 
power  is  obtained.  This  engine  possesses  several  advan- 
tages ;  amongst  them,  are  its  portability ;  having  no 
boiler,  no  danger  is  to  be  apprehended  from  explosions. 
Its  management  is  of  such  simplicity,  that  any  laboring 
man  or  lad  can  control  it.  Requiring  no  chimney,  it  can 
be  fixed  anywhere  without  the  annoyance  from  smoke  j 
and  the  cost  of  the  power  derived  is  stated  to  be  exceed- 
ingly moderate. 

The  general  management  of  gas  is  of  the  greatest  sim- 
plicity, and  it  is  only  where  downright  negligence  exists 
that  any  accident  can  occur ;  and  although  some  cautions 
have  been  suggested  in  the  foregoing  instructions,  this  has 
been  done  with  the  hope  of  inspiring  confidence  and  re- 
moving doubt,  and  with  the  view  to  prevent  even  the  few 
chances  of  accident  that  may  exist. 


ON   BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  53 


CHAPTER  V. 

BURNERS,    FLAMES,    GLASSES,    REFLECTORS,    ETC. 

WHATEVER  may  be  the  quality  of  gas  supplied  by  the 
company,  the  consumer,  through  want  of  knowledge  of 
some  simple  facts  connected  with  burners,  flames,  and 
glasses,  may  be  occasioned  much  annoyance,  disappoint- 
ment, and  expense  ;  and,  -unfortunately,  these  evils  are 
aggravated  on  account  of  gas-fitters  being  frequently  un- 
acquainted with  the  various  contingencies  which  occur  in 
burning  gas. 

It  is  an  every-day  occurrence  for  consumers  to  complain 
of  the  excessive  cost  and  the  deficiency  of  light  on  their 
premises.  The  first  they  invariably  attribute  to  the  inac- 
curacy of  the  meter,  and  the  latter  to  the  bad  quality  of 
the  gas  ;  and  no  doubt  it  would  be  a  difficult  task  to  con- 
vince the  majority  of  those  who  thus  complain  that  much 
of  the  fault  rests  with  themselves.  In  fact  many  of  the 
complaints  made  by  gas-consumers  may  be  traced  to  their 
own  mismanagement,  and  the  want  of  care  and  knowl- 
edge of  gas-fitters.  Bad  burners  are  used,  and  small 
pipes  expected  to  supply  endless  light,  while  half  the 
lights  are  allowed  to  burn  with  ragged  flames,  and  the 
gas  hissing  away,  giving  nothing  like  its  proper  light. 
Grood  burners,  in  connection  with  pipes  of  sufficient  size, 
with  the  flow  or  pressure  of  the  gas  properly  regulated, 
are  the  only  means  of  getting  the  most  satisfactory  results. 


54  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

If  people  would  pay  more  attention  to  these  seeming  tri- 
fles, they  would  be  more  than  paid  for  the  trouble  and 
expense. 

The  object  of  gas  is  to  obtain  light ;  and  whenever  this 
is  effected  at  a  greater  cost  than  necessary,  it  is  in  every 
sense  of  the  word  a  loss — just  as  palpable  as  permitting 
oil,  or  any  other  valuable  commodity,  to  run  to  waste ; 
therefore  it  is  essential  for  us  to  consider  the  means  requi- 
site to  avoid  such  loss. 

For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  best  results  and  econ- 
omy from  gas,  there  is  no  part  connected  therewith  of 
more  importance  than  the  burners.  If  these  are  improp- 
erly constructed,  or  their  flames  unsuitably  adjusted,  the 
light  derived  from  gas  is  reduced  in  a  most  extraordinary 
manner.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  account  of  the 
consumer  is  much  increased,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to 
state  that  a  large  proportion  of  consumers,  through  their 
own  mismanagement,  pay  (considering  the  light  obtained) 
twice  as  much  as  there  is  any  occasion  for ;  or,  in  other 
words,  by  proper  burners  and  control,  they  could  have 
their  usual  light  for  one-half  the  money  paid. 

The  burner,  technically  speaking,  is  the  point  from 
whence  the  gas  issues  to  be  burned.  Sometimes  the  flame 
is  so  called  ;  this,  however,  is  a  misnomer  ;  and  in  these 
pages  the  burner  and  flame  are  always  .considered  distinct 
and  separate  from  each  other. 

The  flame  of  a  bat-wing  or  fish-tail  burner  is  seen  to 
consist  of  two  distinct  parts,  —  one  nearest  the  nipple,  of 
a  light  blue  color,  sometimes  nearly  invisible,  and  a  fringe 
of  luminous  flame  above.  The  relative  proportions  of 
these  two  parts  depend  partly  on  the  quality  of  the  gas, 
but  more  on  the  construction  of  the  burner.  Small  holes, 
or  a  narrow  slit,  will  give  more  of  the  blue  and  less  of 


ON   BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  55 

the  luminous  part  of  the  flame,  all  allowance  being  made 
for  rate  of  burning  and  pressure. 

"  If  you  take  a  thirteen-^andle  gas,  and  burn  it  in  an  ar- 
gand  burner,  you  get  the  illuminating  power  of  thirteea 
candles  ;  if  you  burn  the  same  quantity  of  gas  in  a  bat- 
wing  or  fish-tail  burner,  you  get  only  the  illuminating 
power  of  nine  candles.  But  if  you  put  two  bat-wing 
burners  together,  so  as  to  have  an  agglomeration  of  the 
flame  —  not  so  large  an  expansion  compared  with  the 
quantity  of  the  flame — you  get  an  illuminating  power 
very  nearly  equal  to  twice  thirteen.  In  other  words, 
each  one  of  these  bat-wing  burners,  when  the  two  flames 
are  united  into  one,  gives  you  very  nearly  as  much  illu- 
minating power  as  an  argand  ;  showing  that  the  real  fact 
is,  that  the  flame  of  a  thin  jet  of  gas  greatly  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere  on  both  sides,  loses  its  power  of  illumin- 
ation, simply  because  there  is  such  a  large  extent  of 
atmosphere  on  both  sides  of  this  thin  jet  of  escaping  gas. 
This  is  thoroughly  mixed  up  with  the  gas,  and  causes  it 
to  burn  with  a  blue  flame.  Sometimes  one-half  or  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  area  of  the  flame  is  blue.  If  you 
turn  through  a  jet  of  gas  a  stream  of  atmospheric  air, 
you  will  get  a  strong  heat ;  but  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  gas  is  gone.  You  have  an  enormous  heat,  which  will 
melt  platinum  wire  ;  but  you  have  no  light.  So  it  is  also 
where  you  have  a  jet  of  gas  escaping  from  a  Burner, 
under  conditions  in  which  there  will  be  a  large  amount  of 
atmospheric  air  mixing  with  the  gas." 

There  are  four  kinds  of  burners  generally  in  usage, 
viz.,  the  argand,  bat-wing,  fish-tail  or  union  jet,  and  the 
single  jet,  each  of  which  will  be  considered  separately. 

The  argand  burner  was  first  invented  by  a  French  gen- 
tleman, from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  who  adopted  it  in 


Ob  THE    GAS-CONSUMERS    GUIDE. 

the  last  century  for  oil-lamps,  making  a  most  important 
improvement  in  them.  As  applied  to  gas,  it  consists  of  a 
ring  pierced  with  small  holes  ^  from  these  the  gas  issues, 
and  when  burned  forms  a  cylindrical  flame,  which  is 
enclosed  by  a  glass  cylinder  or  chimney  for  the  purpose 
of  causing  a  draught  or  current  of  air  to  impinge  on  the 
interior  and  exterior  of  the  flame. 

These  are  generally  defined  by  the  number  of  holes 
they  contain  for  the  emission  of  the  gas.  As  already 
stated,  the  standard  indicated-  to  test  the  quality  of  gas 
contains  fifteen  holes.  This,  however,  appears  to  have 
been  chosen  as  the  medium,  and  is  not  by  any  means  the 
most  economical,  and  is  far  from  being  the  most  wasteful 
burner. 

The  annexed  figure  (1)  represents  an  argand  burner 
and  flame  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  —  the  flame 


Fig.  1. 


ON   BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  57 

being  bright,  clear,  and  uniform,  slightly  wavering  at  the 
top,  the  extremity  of  which  is  of  a  reddish  color,  having 
a  tendency  to  emit  smoke  ;  and  there  is  a  total  absence  of 
those  vertical  streaks  which  indicate  a  separation  between 
the  various  jets  forming  the  flame,  all  of  which  points  are 
indispensable  to  the  economical  consumption  of  gas  with 
the  argand  burner. 

The  most  important  considerations  for  good  burners 
are  that  the  orifices  for  the  egress  of  the  gas  should  be 
perfectly  regular  in  size,  and  sufficiently  large,  so  as  to 
permit  it  to  issue  with  very  feeble  pressure  or  force.  The 
passages  to  the  interior  and  exterior  of  flame  should  be 
adjusted  with  great  precision,  so  that  sufficient  air  may 
be  supplied,  but  avoiding  any  excess  of  that,  which  tends 
to  cool  the  flame  and  diminish  the  light ;  and  the  glass 
chimney  for  gas  of  .the  quality  ordinarily  sold,  should  not 
be  longer  than  seven  or  eight  inches.  In  the  event  of 
this  being  exceeded,  a  sensible  loss  of  light  will  be  the 
result.  "With  canuel  coal-gas,  longer  chimneys  may  be 
employed  with  advantage. 

Whenever  the  orifices  for  the  emission  of  gas  are  too 
small,  a  greatly  increased  pressure  is  required  to  expel  it, 
and  the  light  derived  is  diminished  just  in  proportion  to 
that  increased  pressure.  With  burners  constructed  in 
this  defective  manner,  the  flame  has  a  dull  blue  tinge, 
which  increases  in  intensity  according  to  the  augmented 
pressure  ;  the  jets  forming  the  flame  are  more  or  less 
detached,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  lower  part  of  this  is 
of  a  deep  blue  color.  If  the  pressure  be  great,  and  the 
orifices  very  small,  a  series  of  blue  jets  only  are  visible, 
for  reasons  already  explained  in  reference  to  thin  jets  in 
contact,  and  being  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  which 
give  no  light,  even  although  the  full  quantity  for  a  good 


58  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

flame  issues.  Defective  burners  are  very  common,  and 
by  their  usage  the  consumer  frequently  does  not  obtain 
more  than  one-half  the  available  light  to  be  derived  from 
the  gas. 

To  convey  more  forcibly  to  the  reader  the  manner  in 
which  defective  burners  operate,  we  subjoin  a  series  of 
experiments  made  with  four  different  argands,  all  of  the 
same  size,  and  having  15  holes ;  but  the  holes  in  each 
burner  respectively  were  of  such  dimensions  as  only  to 
allow  five  feet  per  hour  to  pass  under  the  various  pressures 
indicated. 

FIVE    FEET    OF    GAS    BURNED    UNDER    VARIOUS    PRESSURES 
GAVE   THE    FOLLOWING   RESULTS. 

Gas  issuing  with  pressure  in  tenths  of  indies. 
l-10th  yielded  the  light  of  12  candles. 
5-10ths        "  "  6       " 

10-10ths        "  "  2J-     " 

40-10ths        "  "  \      " 

From  these  experiments  we  learn  that  the  light  to  be 
obtained  from  a  given  quantity  and  quality  of  gas  is 
entirely  dependent  on  the  burner  from  whence  it  issues 
to  be  consumed.  The  realization  of  the  second  experi- 
ment, when  lialf  the  light  is  lost,  is  to  be  observed  in 
practice  in  almost  every  street.  The  third  experiment  is 
rarely  seen,  and  the  fourth  is  mentioned  merely  as  an 
illustration.  This  demonstrates  very  strongly  the  neces- 
sity of  having  proper  burners  ;  it  also  shows  how,  by 
negligence  on  this  point,  the  consumer's  gas  account  can 
be  greatly  increased  in  what  appears  a  most  mysterious 
manner. 

The  holes  of  argand  burners  may,  however,  be  too 


ON   BUHNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  59 

large,  in  which,  case  the  flame  smokes.  Their  size  must 
be  defined  by  the  quality  of  gas  they  are  intended  to 
consume.  With  inferior  gas,  the  holes  are  required  to  be 
large,  whilst  for  that  of  superior  quality  they  should  be 
proportionably  small.  We  will  now  refer  to  the  varied 
light  obtained  by  the  adjustment  of  flames,  which  is 
another  source  of  loss. 


Fig.  2. 

We  would  naturally  suppose  that,  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  gas  issuing  from  a  burner,  so  would  be  the 
amount  of  light  obtained  ;  thus,  if  5  feet  give  the  light  of 
12  candles,  that  the  flame  being  reduced  so  as  to  consume 
2J  feet,  would  give  the  light  of  6  candles.  This,  how- 
ever, is  far  from  being  the  case ;  for  there  is  a  particular 
point  in  the  consumption  of  any  class  of  burner  where 
the  maximum  light  is  derived ;  and  any  deviation  from 
this  entails  loss.  As  an  example  of  this :  if  an  argand 


60  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

flame  consumes  5  feet  per  hour,  and  gives  the  light  of  12 
candles,  and  this  be  reduced  so  that  only  three-fourths  of 
that  quantity  is  burned  (a  flame,  very  similar  to  fig.  2), 
then,  instead  of  the  light  being  equal  to  9  candles,  the 
theoretical  proportion,  it  will  be  6  candles  only,  causing 
a  direct  loss  of  36  per  cent.  And  if  the  flame  be  further 
reduced  to  consume  2  J  feet,  then,  instead  of  the  light  being 
that  of  6  candles  (the  due  proportion  according  to  the 
consumption),  it  will  be  2J  candles,  being  a  loss  of  nearly 
60  per  cent.  Lastly,  if  it  be  reduced  to  burn  1 J  feet  per 
hour,  a  small  blue  ring  of  flame  is  all  that  is  visible, 
without  any  available  light. 

Thus  the  cost  of  light  from  gas  is  very  much  increased 
by  reducing  the  size  of  the  flame.  The  knowledge  of  this 
fact  is  of  importance  to  the  consumer,  who,  in  ignorance 
of  it,  in  his  desire  to  be  economical,  might  obtain  directly 
the  opposite  result.  To  give  an  instance  of  this,  let  us 
observe  a  shop  window  or  other  place  having  four  good 
argand  burners,  as  described,  but  their  flames  so  checked 
or  adjusted  as  to  consume  each  2J  feet  per  hour,  about 
two-thirds  the  height  of  that  represented  in  fig.  2,  when 
the  light  from  them  conjointly  would  be  only  equal  to  10 
candles,  obtained  at  a  cost  of  10  feet  of  gas  per  hour ; 
whereas  if  these  were  replaced  by  one  burner  with  the 
flame  at  the  proper  height,  considerably  more  light  would 
be  had,  at  one-half  the  cost.  Here,  then,  is  one  of  many 
remarkable  instances  where  consumers  voluntarily  increase 
their  gas  accounts  by  improper  management. 

It  is  therefore  more  economical  to  have  one  good  gas- 
light than  a  number  of  small  ones  ;  besides,  the  brilliancy 
of  the  former  contrasts  strikingly  against  the  dulness  of 
the  latter. 

On  the  other  hand,  every  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 


o , 


ON   BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  61 

the  gas  passing  off  in  waste  ;  for  whenever  a  flame  be- 
comes smoky,  there  is  a  considerable  loss  of  gas,  without 
any  increased  light.  The  inconvenience  of  having  the 
ceilings  blackened,  with  a  probablity  of  goods  stored  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  apartment  being  injured  by  the 
smoke,  adds  to  the  annoyance. 

A  great  consideration  with  argand  burners  is  that  the 
flame,  when  slightly  checked,  should  be  perfectly  regular 
and  uniform  in  height.  When  this  is  not  the  case,  it 
arises  from  some  of  the  holes  being  obstructed,  which 
may  be  easily  cleared  by  means  of  a  suitable  broach,  to 
be  had  of  most  fine-tool  merchants ;  and  should  they  be 
too  small,  with  the  same  implement  they  may  be  en- 
larged. All  irregular  or  pronged  flames  cause  a  serious 
loss  of  light;  and  the  consumer  should  not  hesitate  to 
change  any  defective  burners,  as  the  cost  is  speedily 
realized  by  the  economy,  the  brilliancy  of  the  light,  and 
avoiding  smoke. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  light  is  required  in  enclosed 
places,  as  shops,  warehouses,  etc.,  argand  burners  are 
beyond  comparison  superior  to  all  others  ;  it  is  true  they 
require  more  attention  in  cleaning  glasses ;  there  is  also 
the  expanse  of  renewing  the  breakage  of  these  ;  but  the 
drawbacks  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  beauty 
and  economy  of  the  light,  due  attention,  of  course,  being 
paid  to  its  proper  management. 

The  annexed  fig.  (3)  represents  an  argand  burner  with 
two  chimneys,  the  one  within  the  other,  the  bottom  of  the 
outer  being  closed  by  a  glass  dish  or  saucer.  In  this  the 
air  to  supply  the  flame  passes  down  between  the  chim- 
neys, in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,. find  becoming  heated 
in  its  passage,  does  not  cool  the  flame,  and  a  very  large 
increase  of  light  is  the  result.  According  to  Dr.  Frank- 


62 


THE    GAS-COXSUMER  S    GUIDE. 


Fig.  3. 

land,  a  high  authority,  for  an  equal  amount  of  light,  the 
saving  of  gas  by  the  use  of  this  hot-air  burner  is  equal 
to  33  per  cent.  ;  and  for  an  equal  consumption  of  gas, 
the  gain  in  light  is  equal  to  62  per  cent. 

This  class  of  burner  is  admirably  adapted  for  private 
dwellings,  offices,  etc..  on  account  of  the  diminished  vit- 
iated air,  heat,  and  vapor,  for  the  light  derived  ;  but 
although  so  highly  recommended  by  Dr.  Frankland,  and 
other  scientific  gentlemen,  from  some  unaccountable  cause 
it  has  not  been  generally  introduced  to  the  notice  of  the 
public.  This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  when  we  reflect 
on  the  innumerable  absurdities  which  are  produced  from 
time  to  time,  and  have  a  large  share  of  favor  for  a  period, 
until  their  demerits  become  known. 

Another  economical  class  of  argand  burner  has  a  per- 


ON   BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  63 

forated  porcelain  cup,  on  which  the  chimney  reposes  ;  the 
air  to  supply  the  flame  passes  through  the  pierced  cup,  and 
probably  on  account  of  it  being  limited  in  consequence, 
the  light  from  the  gas  is  increased.  A  precisely  similar 
result  is  obtained  by  having  a  ring  of  perforated  metal, 
or  wire  gauze,  placed  on  the  outer  circle  for  the  admission 
of  air.  Burners  having  cones,  so  as  to  cause  the  air  to 
impinge  upon  the  flame,  are  also  considered  economical. 

A  very  suitable  burner  for  lighthouses,  signals,  etc.,  is 
a  modification  of  the  argand  called  the  Boccius  burner. 
This  consists  of  two  or  more  concentric  rings  of  flame, 
provided  with  a  suitable  chimney.  In  these  each  ring  of 
jets  should  be  adjusted  by  a  separate  tap,  otherwise  there 
is  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  uniformity  of  flame. 

The  larger  kinds  of  argand  burners  are  the  most  eco- 
nomical. The  advantage  gained  by  employing  a  30-hole 
argand  instead  of  the  standard  is  an  increase  of  from  20 
.to  30  per  cent,  more  light ;  for  if  the  standard  consumes 
5  feet  per  hour,  and  gives  the  light  of  12  candles,  the 
30-hole  burner,  consuming  7  feet  per  hour,  will  give  the 
light  of  22  candles.  Therefore,  whenever  good  light  is 
desirable,  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  employing  the 
latter. 

The  argand  is,  however,  not  usually  employed  in  dwell- 
ings, arising  from  its  flame  being  susceptible  to  change 
in  height  with  every  variation  of  pressure  in  the  com- 
pany's main  —  at  one  time  rising  to  a  considerable  length 
and  smoking,  at  another  requiring  to  be  increased  to  give 
the  desired  light.  Although  the  same  irregularity  exists 
with  the  other  classes,  it  is  not  so  evident  as  with  the 
argand.  This  difficulty  is  easily  overcome  by  attaching 
a  good  regulator  to  the  premises,  when  the  flames  will  be 
continuously  uniform. 


64  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

When  only  a  small  light  is  required,  the  argand  is  not 
well  adapted ;  the  bat-wing  and  fish-tail  are  then  by  far 
the  most  economical.  As  shown,  when  burning  1^  feet 
per  hour,  this  is  useless  ;  but  the  same  quantity  with  the 
other  burners  will  yield  a  very  useful  light. 

THE    BAT-WING    BURNER 

Is  so  called  on  account  of  its  flame  having  the  form  of 
the  wing  of  a  bat.  This  burner  consists  of  a  metal,  "  lava," 
or  "  adamas "  nib,  with  a  hole  pierced  therein  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  top,  across  which  is  a  slit  from  which 


Fig,  4. 

the  gas  issues  in  a  thin  flat  flame.  Fig.  4  represents  a 
bat-wing  flame  under  very  favorable  conditions,  when 
producing  the  maximum  of  light  from  the  gas.  As  seen, 
it  is  clear  and  bright,  a  small  portion  only  of  the  lower 
part  being  tinged  with  blue ;  the  two  points  are  slightly 
reddened,  and  have  a  tendency  to  smoke.  A  flame  like 
this  wavers  or  flags.  A  perfectly  steady  bat-wing  or 
fish-tail  flame  is  never  economical. 

Following  the  law  already  mentioned,  when  the  orifices 
of  bat-wing  burners  are  small,  requiring  a  strong  pressure 


ON   BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  G5 

to  expel  the  gas,  great  loss  of  light  is  the  result ;  the  flame 
then  becomes  streaked  with  blue  rays,  the  light  therefrom 
is  of 'a  sombre  hue,  and.  when  contrasted  with  a  good 
burner  arid  flame,  the  difference  is  so  great  that  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  conceive  that  the  two  are  supplied  with 
the  same  gas. 


Fig.  5. 

Fig.  5  represents  a  flame  under  extreme  circumstances, 
the  orifice  of  the  burner  being  very  small,  and  the  gas 
issuing  with  great  pressure,  producing  a  rough,  uneven 
flame  of  a  dull  blue  tinge,  accompanied  with  a  roaring 
noise.  The  loss  of  light  under  such  conditions  is  very 
great,  perhaps  equal  to  three-fourths  or  four-fifths  of  that 
the  gas  would  produce  if  properly  consumed. 

By  an  obstruction  in  the  slit,  the  bat-wing  flame  becomes 
forked  and  uneven.  This  is  also  a  cause  of  loss  of  light ; 
however,  they  are  easily  cleaned  by  passing  a  piece  of 
watch-spring  or  thin  card  through  the  slit ;  if  the  burner 
be  made  of  "lava,"  or  "adamas,"  a  camel-hair  pencil 
will  clear  it. 

Bat-wing  burners  are  the  best  adapted  for  all  out-door 

lights.     They  require  no  glasses,  nor  are  they  affected, 

like  the  argand,  by  every  breath  of  wind.     They  are  also 

useful  in  enclosed  places,  where  appearance  is  not  a  con- 

5 


66 


THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  -GUIDE. 


sideration,  and  are  generally  employed  in  the  sunlight, 
hereafter  mentioned. 

Whenever  economy  in  gas  and  a  good  light  are  de- 
sirable, the  larger  descriptions  of  bat-wing  burners  are 
always  to  be  preferred,  as  reference  to  the  following  table 
of  the  light  given  by  various  kinds  will  demonstrate.  The 
letters  attached  are  for  future  observations. 

Candles. 
A.  A  bat-wing  burner,  consuming  2  feet  per  hour,  gives  the  light  of  2$ 


3* 


10 


22 


The  above  may  not  be  confirmed  by  every  class  of 
burners,  but  are  a  general  average  with  gas  of  the  qual- 
ity supplied,  the  pressure  being  in  all  cases  4-10ths  of  an 
inch  at  the  point  of  ignition. 


THE    FISH-TAIL    BURNER. 


This  likewise  takes  its  name  from  the  appearance  of  the 
flame,  and  is  formed  by  a  nib  of  metal,  etc.,  nearly  pierced 


Fig,  6. 


ON    BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  67 

to  the  top,  where  there  are  two  holes,  drilled  at  such  an 
angle  that  each  jet  of  gas  in  issuing  impinges  against  the 
other,  forming,  when  lighted,  a  sheet  of  flame  at  right 
angles  with  the  holes.  Fig.  6  represents  such  a  burner 
and  flame  of  the  best  description,  yielding  the  maximum 
of  light  from  gas. 

The  general  observations  respecting  pressure,  and  the 
size  of  the  orifice  of  argand  and  bat-wing  burners,  apply 
equally  to  these.  When  the  pressure  is  excessive,  it  is 
indicated  in  the  fish-tail  by  a  roaring  noise,  with  an 
alteration  in  the  form  of  its  flame  ;  the  result  is  that  a 
large  quantity  of  gas  passes  without  giving  light.  In 
some  respects  this  burner  is  the  most  defective,  for  it 
affords  facilities  for  the  gas  to  pass  off  imperceptibly  in 
waste  with  any  slight  excess  of  pressure,  whereas,  with 
the  other  burners  mentioned,  notice  would  be  given  of 
this  by  the  smoke  arising  therefrom.  Fish-tail  burners 
are  very  generally  adopted  for  dwellings,  on  account  of 
their  being  most  suitable  for  glass  moons  or  globes. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  7  is  a  sketch  of  this  class  of  flame  as  ordinarily 
employed ;  but  in  this  the  gas  is  not  burned  in  the  most 
favorable  manner,  on  account  of  the  holes  being  too  small, 


68  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

causing  the  flame  to  have  a  blue  tinge,  with  a  series  of 
radiating  blue  streaks.  By  increasing  the  size  of  the 
holes  for  the  emission  of  the  gas,  this  is  avoided,  the 
flame  becomes  brighter,  and  economy  is  effected. 

Following  the  law  of  other  burners  for  the  light  pro- 
duced, the  larger  descriptions  of  fish-tails  are  the  most 
economical,  as  seen  by  the  subjoined  :  — 

Candles. 

A.  A  fish-tail  burner,  consuming  1J  feet  per  hour,  gives  the  light  of  1 
2i 


6* 

10 


18 


The  tables  just  referred  to  of  the  relative  consumption 
of  bat-wing  and  fish-tail  burners,  with  the  amount  of  light 
derived,  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  gas-consumer  ; 
for  we  find  on  examination  that  bat-wing  burner  F,  for  a 
given  quantity  of  gas  consumed,  gives  nearly  three  times 
the  light  of  A,  and  that  E  gives  nearly  twice  the  light  of 
B.  Again,  with  fish-tails,  gas  consumed  with  burner  p 
gives  more  than  three  times  the  light  than  when  consumed 
with  burner  A.  Therefore,  in  order  to  employ  gas  ad- 
vantageously, the  larger  size  burners  should  always  be 
adopted,  even  when  only  the  limited  light  of  two  or  three 
candles  is  required.  The  large  burner,  when  turned 
down  to  the  proper  degree,  furnishes  that  light  at  a  much 
more  economical  rate  than  the  smaller  kinds. 

Nevertheless,  we  see  in  daily  practice  establishments, 
such  as  hotels,  illuminated  by  the -smallest  descriptions  of 
burners,  frequently  arranged  in  clusters  or  bouquets.  The 
light  obtained  from  these  is  always  of  a  dull  nature,  and 
most  extravagant  in  price.  To  demonstrate  this,  we  will 
take  a  case  in  point,  a  hotel,  for  instance,  having  a  series 


ON   BUHNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  69 

of  bouquets  of  fish-tail  A,  one  hundred  of  which  are  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  premises  (by  no  means  uncom- 
mon), giving  the  light  of  one  hundred  candles,  at  a  cost 
of  125  feet  per  hour.  Now,  if,  instead  of  these,  only 
eight  burners  E  were  employed,  then  precisely  the  same 
quantity  of  light  would  be  had  at  about  one-third  the  cost. 
When  consumers  use  these  defective  burners,  they  must 
necessarily  expect  to  pay  dearly  for  their  carelessness  or 
want  of  judgment. 

THE    CARCEL   BURNER. 

This  is  a  simple  burner,  named  from  the  resemblance 
of  the  flame  to  the  celebrated  carcel  lamp,  with  a  perfor- 
ated disc  at  the  lower  part,  and  two  orifices  at  the  upper, 
where  the  flames  unite  and  spread  into  one  ;  each  side  of 
this  united  flame  is  supported  by  two  curved  levers  or 
arms.  It  is  thus  made  a  steady  burner.  That  it  is  noise- 
less, is  at  once  evident  on  examination.  In  point  of 
economy,  it  is  said  to  be  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the 
argand  or  fish-tail  burners.  The  light  from  this  burner 
is  steady,  soft,  and  mellow,  and  in  these  particulars  is 
said  to  be  almost  without  a  rival; 

THE   SINGLE-JET   BURNER. 

This  is  a  simple  jet  flame,  similar  to  that  of  a  candle, 
but  is  seldom  used,  except  when  only  a  very  small  flame 
is  desired,  as  at  counting-house  desks  for  sealing,  pipe- 
light  burners,  etc.  With  the  richer  descriptions  of  gas, 
such  as  produced  in  Scotland,  it  is  very  commonly  em- 
ployed, but  only  where  a  limited  degree  of  light  is 
required. 

From  the  foregoing  observations  we  learn  :  — 

That  according  to  the  construction  of  burners,  and  thp 


70  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

pressure  with  which  the  gas  issues,  so  will  be  the  amount 
of  light  derived.  A  proper  burner  will  give  the  maximum 
of  light,  whereas  an  imperfect  one  diminishes  it  very  ma- 
terially ;  and  it  is  even  practicable,  by  bad  burners  and 
high  pressure,  to  consume  gas  without  it  yielding  any 
light  whatever. 

That  when  the  flame  of  the  argand  is  diminished,  a 
greatly  decreased  light  from  the  gas  is  the  result ;  there- 
fore it  is  essential  that  the  full  quantity  of  gas  for  which 
the  burner  is  made  should  be  consumed.  One  good  light 
is  much  more  economical  than  several  bad  ones. 

That  with  all  classes  of  burners  the  light  obtained  from 
the  smallest  sizes  is  always  costly  —  in  many  instances  the 
consumer,  by  using  them,  pays  two  or  three  times  more 
for  lighting  his  premises  than  would  be  necessary  if  proper 
burners  were  employed. 

The  best  description  of  burners  are  of  lava,  and  others 
called  adamas.  These,  in  appearance,  resemble  porce- 
lain, and  are  constructed  in  a  manner  to  produce  the 
maximum  of  light  from  gas.  Being  incorrodible,  they 
cannot  be  destroyed  or  obstructed  by  rust.  They  are  of 
the  greatest  durability,  and  are  cleaned  from  dust  or  dirt 
simply  by  a  camel  hair  pencil.  Whenever  defective  burners 
exist  on  premises,  the  consumer  should  not  hesitate  to 
replace  them  immediately,  for  the  expense  is  speedily 
repaid  by  the  economy  effected  and  brilliancy  of  light 
obtained. 

GLASSES,    GLOBES,    AND   REFLECTORS. 

With  the  argand  burner  the  glass  chimney  is  indis- 
pensable ;  otherwise,  instead  of  the  flame  burning  with 
that  brightness  and  clearness  peculiar  to  it,  it  would  be 
dull,  and  yield  a  large  portion  of  gas  in  an  unconsumed 


ON    BURNERS,    FLAMES,    ETC.  71 

state,  which  would  pass  off  as  smoke  ;  but  all  additions, 
as  globes,  detract  considerably  from  the  light.  No  glasses 
of  any  description  are  ever  used  with  bat- wing  burners, 
on  account  of  the  flame  having  a  tendency  to  distend 
itself  with  any  increase  of  pressure,  which  would  be 
liable  to  break  them. 

With  fish-tail  burners,  glass  globes  or  moons  are  com- 
monly employed  for  the  purpose  of  ornament.  These  are 
very  desirable  in  private  dwellings  ;  but  in  shops  they  are 
frequently  used  without  any  consideration  of  appearance  ; 
on  the  contrary,  their  dusty  state  is  often  sufficient  evi- 
dence of  the  neglect  and  carelessness  with  which  they  are 
regarded  ;  in  such  places  they  should  be  dispensed  with. 
Globes  of  every  denomination  present  a  serious  obstruc- 
tion to  the  diffusion  of  the  light  of  gas  ;  according  to  the 
best  opinions,  the  light  lost  by  them  is  as  follows  :  — 

Light  obstructed  by  a  clear  glass  globe about  12  per  cent. 

'        clear  globe  engraved  with  flowers        "     24       " 
'         globe  of  ordinary  pattern  ....        "35        " 

"  '        globe  obscured  all  over "40        " 

"  '        an  opal  globe     ........        "60        " 

"  «        painted  opal  globes "64       " 

Here,  again,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  consumer,  in 
using  these,  voluntarily  increases  the  price  of  light  by 
employing  the  means  to  prevent  its  diffusion. 

Where  globes  are  necessary,  the  choice  may  be  made 
between  those  which  are  entirely  plain,  or  others  where 
the  upper  half  is  obscured,  leaving  the  under  part  plain, 
or  those  obscured  all  over  and  engraved ;  but  the  opal 
moon  should  only  be  used  where  economy  is  not  a  con- 
sideration, for,  as  shown,  60  per  cent,  of  light  is  lost  by 
its  use. 


72  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


REFLECTORS. 

The  purpose  of  the  reflector  is  to  throw  back,  or  reflect, 
some  of  the  rays  of  light  which  would  be  lost,  or  absorbed 
by  surrounding  objects.  They  are  made  of  bright  metal, 
porcelain,  silvered  glass,  enamelled  metal,  etc.  When 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  shop  windows,  to  throw  the 
light  on  goods  displayed,  a  good  effect  is  produced.  To 
attain  the  best  results,  they  should  be  hidden  as  much  as 
possible  from  the  beholder. 

Reflectors  are  used  in  many  places  as  a  source  of  at- 
traction, by  reflecting  the  light  into  the  street ;  but  possess 
the  inconvenience  of  dazzling  the  eyes  of  persons  who 
pass  into  their  rays.  They  are  useful  in  many  places 
where  the  light  is  required  to  be  concentrated  in  any  par- 
ticular spot;  and  for  lighthouses,  railway  signals,  etc., 
they  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  observation  here. 


THE   PROPER  POSITION   OF   GAS-LIGHTS.  73 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   PROPER   POSITION   OP   GAS-LIGHTS. 

THIS  subject  has  received  very  little  attention  from 
those  whom  it  most  concerns,  particularly  as  regards  the 
position  of  lights  in  large  buildings,  such  as  churches, 
chapels,  halls,  theatres,  etc.,  where  it  frequently  appears 
that  the  system  adopted  is  to  distribute  a  given  number 
of  lights  according  to  the  area  of  the  premises,  without 
any  consideration  for  the  comfort  or  convenience  of  thjs 
congregation  or  auditory. 

A  common  method  of  illuminating  churches,  chapels, 
and  public  halls,  is  to  suspend  a  number  of  lights  from 
the  front  of  the  galleries,  whilst  others  are  surmounted 
on  pillars  in  the  galleries  and  body  of  edifice.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  those  persons  seated  at  the  furthest  end 
from  the  pulpit,  desk,  or  platform,  have  to  sustain  the  full 
glare  of  a  large  number  of  flames  or  lights,  which,  in  ad- 
dition to  rendering  the  speaker  in  comparative  obscurity, 
after  a  short  time  has  a  tendency  to  produce  drowsiness, 
causing  some  people  involuntarily  to  close  their  eyes,  to 
fall  perhaps  into  a  dose.  Thus  that  which  might  be 
attributed  to  want  of  merit  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  is 
due  to  the  defective  arrangement  of  the  gas-lights. 

A  similar  objection  exists  in  theatres,  where  often  the 
lights  are  placed  directly  before  the  eyes  of  persons  who 
occupy  the  best  seats  in  the  place  ;  or  perhaps  a  glaring 


74  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

chandelier  is  immediately  in  front  pf  those  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  building.  There  are  various  other  systems 
of  lighting  public  edifices  equally,  disagreeable  as  those 
mentioned,  and  unfortunately,  it  is  only  in  a  very  few 
instances  where  illumination  in  such  places  is  properly 
carried  into  effect.  In  some  cases  the  error  of  excess  of 
light  is  committed,  which  is  always  fatiguing  to  the  eyes 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  assembly,. and  is  wasteful ;  should 
proper  means  of  ventilation  not  be  adopted,  it  then  be- 
comes unhealthy.  In  public  buildings,  where  the  degree 
of  light  necessary  for  persons  to  read  with  facility  is  ex- 
ceeded, it  becomes  worse  than  useless. 

It  is  well  known  that  any  one  when  seeking  an  object 
in  a  dark  place  with  a  lighted  candle,  in  order  to  be 
enabled  to  see  the  better,,  the  first  impulse  is  to  screen  the 
flame  from  the  eyes  by  the  hand,  otherwise  its  glare  im- 
pedes the  vision.  Or  when  the  sun  shines  on  the  eyes  of 
an  individual,  in  like  manner  he  shades  them,  so  as  to  be 
enabled  to  see  any  object  or  person  at  a  distance  off;  and 
these  simple  operations  ought  to  be  imitated  in  gas-light- 
ing, for  objects  are  always  seen  to  more  advantage,  or 
with  greater  facility,  when  the  flame  illuminating  them  is 
hidden  from  the  spectator. 

If  a  pulpit  or  lecture-table  be  illuminated  by  unscreened 
lights,  the  speaker  is  seen  under  considerable  disadvan- 
tage ;  but  if  these  be  screened  by  suitable  shades,  so  that 
the  light  falls  on  the  individual,  but  is  hidden  from  the 
assembly,  the  difference  will  be  considerable.  In  the 
latter  case  every  outline  is  well  defined,  every  change  of 
expression  is  observed  with  facility,  and  the  eyes  of  the 
spectators  are  not  fatigued.  The  same  principle  applies 
to  the  general  lighting  t>f  churches,  where  the  lights  are 
arranged  as  already  stated ;  but  if  they  were  so  shaded 


THE   PROPER   POSITION    OF    GAS-LIGHTS.  75 

that  the  light  came  only  from  the  backs  or  above  the 
heads  of  the  people  assembled,  it  would  add  much  to 
their  comfort  and  convenience. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  means  of  illuminating  large  pub- 
lic edifices,  is  the  "  sun-light." 

It  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  beauty  and  agreeable  glow 
of  this  description  of  illumination  in  large  buildings,  with- 
out having  witnessed  it.  The  apparatus  is  of  the  greatest 
simplicity  and  neatness  ;  the  light  therefrom,  on  account 
of  its  position,  surpasses  all  others,  and,  if  the  size  and 
number  of  burners  be  properly  considered,  it  is  not  ex- 
pensive. A  further  recommendation  is  that  it  ventilates 
in  an  admirable  manner  the  building  where  placed. 

An  error  often  committed  in  fixing  these  lights  is  to 
place  them  too  high  up  ;  indeed,  in  some  cases,  the  tube 
is  dispensed  with,  the  reflector  being  attached  to  the 
ceiling.  This  increases  materially  the  cost  of  gas,  inas- 
much as  the  light  is  diminished  very  sensibly,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  increased  distance  of  the  flames  illuminating. 
Therefore  they  should  always  be  placed  as  low  as  con- , 
sistent  with  general  appearance,  taking  care  that  the 
reflector  does  not  cast  a  shade  on  the  persons  assembled 
in  the  galleries  or  upper  part  of  building. 

The  only  objections  that  can  be  raised  against  this 
class  of  apparatus  when  properly  arranged,  are  that  the 
columns  and  galleries  of  buildings  illuminated  thereby 
cause  shadows  to  be  thrown,  so  that  part  of  the  building 
is  in  comparative  obscurity.  This,  however,  is  counter- 
acted by  having  a  few  lights  fixed  under  the  galleries, 
attached  to  the  back  of  such  columns,  or  wherever  they 
may  be  desired. 

Goods  in  shop  windows  are  also  displayed  to  much 
greater  advantage  when  the  lights  illuminating  them  are 


76  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

hidden  from  the  eye  ;  and  nothing  is  simpler  to  arrange 
than  this.  Most  classes  of  merchandise  are  exhibited 
under  the  best  conditions  when  the  light  descends  from 
above,  there  being  provided  suitable  reflectors  to  throw 
the  light  on  the  goods. 

There  are  so  many  examples  of  lighting  dwellings,  that 
the  consumer  may  judge  for  himself  of  the  most  suitable 
plan  according  to  his  taste.  "Much  of  the  economy  and 
effect, of  gas-light,  however,  depends  upon  the  arrangement 
of  gas  burners  in  relation  to  each  other,  to  the  surround- 
ings of  the  furniture,  height  of  ceilings,  distance  and 
angles  of  walls,  hangings,  etc. 

"The  general  practice  of  disposing  of  burners  in  chan- 
deliers in  the  centre  of  the  rooms,  although  pleasing  to  the 
eye  in  its  artistic  effect,  simply  as  an  ornament  to  the 
room,  is  far  from  being  the  most  philosophical  manner  to 
obtain  the  best  effect  from  the  light.  Shadows  have  much 
to  do  in  the  effective  and  satisfactory  lighting  of  any  hall 
or  room.  Hence  it  is  that  a  single  light,  or  a  centre- 
piece, or  nucleus  of  lights  as  represented  by  a  chandelier, 
is  objectionable,  because  your  shadow  will  appear  in  any 
part  of  the  room  opposite  to  the  light,  and  is  more  or  less 
inconvenient  in  proportion  as  it  differs  in  that  respect 
from  daylight,  which  is  so  diffused  as  to  avoid  this  evil, 
except  in  peculiar  conditions. 

"The  proper  and  most  efficient  position  for  gas-burners, 
therefore,  is  at  the  different  sides,  or  better,  the  different 
angles  of  the  room.  Then  the  intensity  of  the  light  will 
be  more  uniform  in  every  part  of  the  room. 

"Brackets  should  not  be  used  on  one  side  of  the  room 
only  when  used,  but  should  be  disposed  vis-a-vis,  or  as 
nearly  so  as  possible." 

One  rule  should,  however,  be  imperatively  laid  down ; 


THE   PROPER  POSITION   OF   GAS-LIGHTS.  77 

that  is,  in  all  sitting-rooms,  reception  or  drawing-rooms, 
and  even  kitchens,  when  the  light  is  suspended  from  the 
centre,  if  the  apartment  be  sufficiently  high,  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  it  above  the  level  of  the  eyes  of  the 
occupants. 

Of  late  years,  great  change  has  taken  place  in  the  con- 
struction of  gas  apparatus.  They  were  formerly  made 
in  a  very  massive  and  costly  manner  ;  now  they  are  light, 
elegant,  and  can  be  had  at  prices  to  suit  all  classes. 


78  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    GAS-METER. 

WITH  the  exception  of  the  indicator  of  time,  either 
known  as  clock,  watch,  etc.,  there  is  no  mechanical  in- 
strument so  much  in  use  as  the  gas-meter,  and  perhaps, 
generally,  there  is  none  so  little  understood. 

This  want  of  knowledge  of  the  instrument  often  causes 
much  distrust  and  suspicion.  All  the  extravagance  of 
improper  burning,  accidental  losses  or  escapes,  errors  in 
management  of  gas,  are  recorded,  and  brought  to  the 
account  of  the  consumer  by  it,  frequently  producing  much 
annoyance,  which  would  be  avoided  were  people  better 
informed  on  the  subject. 

Some  extraordinary  circumstances  occur  daily  in  con- 
junction with  the  gas-meter,  and  we  will  merely  relate 
three  of  them  as  examples,  to  illustrate  how  people  may 
be  deceived  by  their  own  acts. 

A  gentleman  and  his  family,  of  Boston,  beiug  about 
to  visit  some  friends  for  a  short  period  in  a  distant  part 
of  the  country,  shut  up  their  house,  together  with  the  fur- 
niture, leaving  no  one  in  charge  of  them.  It  was  at  first 
intended  their  absence  should  be  but  a  few  days,  but  was 
ultimately  prolonged  from  time  to  time,  and  at  the  end 
of  six  months  they  returned  to  their  home. 

A  short  time  after  their  arrival  the  gas  company  pre- 
sented a  very  heavy  account,  and  the  gentleman,  believing 


THE    GAS-METER.          .  79 

it  an  error,  went  for  explanation,  taking  with  him  the 
receipt  for  payment  to  within  a  few  days  of  his  departure  ; 
he  was,  however,  informed  that  it  was  for  gas  consumed 
since.  He  then  exulted  in  the  proof  he  could  give  of  the 
house  having  been  shut  up  —  the  absence  of  his  family — 
consequently  not  requiring  lights  ;  but  the  officers  of  the 
company  insisted  on  the  accuracy  of  the  meter,  and  on 
payment  for  the  quantity  indicated  thereby. 

The  gentleman,  not  in  the  best  of  humors,  went  home 
protesting  against  the  injustice,  and  stated  the  circum- 
stances to  his  wile,  who  at  first  was  equally  astonished. 
She  hesitated  —  reflected  a  moment.  "  Well,"  she  said, 
"how  silly  !  Now  I  recollect,  just  as  we  were  leaving, 
I  had  forgotten  my  keys,  which  were  left  in  the  drawing- 
room.  To  find  them  I  lighted  the  gas  ;  in  my  hurry  for- 
got 1o  turn  it  off  again,  and  on  returning  I  found  it  still 
burning.  It  is  my  fault,  and  we  must  pay  for  it." 

The  gas  had  actually  been  burning  day  and  night  for 
six  months,  and  of  course  indicated  by  the  meter.  The 
gentleman  being  satisfied  with  the  explanation,  paid  the 
account. 

We  can  draw  two  inferences  from  this  :  Firstly,  if  the 
lady  had  not  been  candid,  the  worst  conclusions  would 
have  been  entertained  by  the  consumer  ;  secondly,  if  she 
had  been  aware  of  the  importance  and  fidelity  of  the 
meter,  she  would  have  given  it  more  attention,  and  so 
saved  the  money. 

Another  instance  occurred  at  a  large  wholesale  ware- 
house, where  gas  was  being  consumed  during  the  whole 
of  the  twenty-four  hours  daily ;  but  in  the  day-time,  as 
at  night  after  business  hours,  only  a  small  number  of 
burners  were  used.  However,  the  principal  of  the  estab- 
lishment found  the  consumption  very  excessive,  and 


80  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

complained  to  the  company.  The  meter  was  accordingly 
tested  for  his  satisfaction,  in  the  presence  of  his  represen- 
tative, arrd  found  correct.  Subsequently,  renewed  and 
continuous  complaints  were  made,  when  an  officer  of  the 
company  went  to  investigate  the  affair,  and  a  simple 
observation  of  a  few  minutes  convinced  him  that  there 
was  an  important  escape  of  gas  somewhere  ;  pursuing 
the  inquiry,  he  found  a  defective  pipe  on  the  roof  of 
a  detached  building,  which  at  once  accounted  for  the 
complaint  and  loss.  The  isolated  position  of  the  place 
where  the  defective  pipe  existed,  prevented  the  escape  of 
gas  being  detected  by -the  smell ;  and  the  loss,  being  con- 
tinuous, made  it  of  very  serious  importance. 

Had  the  principal,  or  the  persons  in  his  employ,  under- 
stood the  construction  of  the  meter,  they  would  have 
done  precisely  the  same  as  the  gas  inspector  —  turned  off 
all  the  taps  on  the  premises,  leaving  the  main  tap  open, 
and  then  have  noticed  the  drum  or  dial,  referred  to  when 
speaking  of  the  index  of  meters,  which  shows  the  units 
of  feet  passing,  and  would  have  observed  this  to  revolve  ; 
clearly  proving  that  gas  was  passing,  although  none  was 
used. 

In  the  other  case,  a  gas  inspector  in  the  course  of  his 
business  having  informed  the  proprietor  of  an  establish- 
ment the  amount  of  consumption — "That  won't  do," 
said  the  latter,  u  for  I  have  been  away  all  the  quarter, 
and  no  one  has  used  it."  "  But,"  said  the  inspector,  "per- 
haps your  servant  has."  "  Not  she,"  was  the  reply: 
u  and  I  will  not  pay  it ;  it  is  a  cheat  —  a  fraud,  which  I 
protest  against." 

The  following  quarter  the  inspector  again  called,  when 
the  same  consumer  blandly  asked,  "  How  much  have  I 
used  this  time  ?  "  "  Nothing,"  was  the  reply.  "  Nothing ! 


THE    GAS-METEK.  81 

look  again."  "  No,"  was  the  rejoinder,  "  nothing." 
"  Well,"  said  the  consumer,  "I  begin  to  imagine  I  can 
rely  more  on  your  box  than  on  the  word  of  my  servant ; 
for,  thinking  to  detect  you  in  error,  I  took  away  the  key 
of  the  gas,  so  that  it  could  not  be  used,  and  only  replaced 
it  Avhen  you  came  to  the  house.  I  am  satisfied  now." 

These  cases  might  be  mentioned  by  hundreds.  They 
are  of  daily  occurrence,  and  the  consumer,  not  being  able 
to  assign  a  reason  for  discrepancies,  places  the  evil  to  the 
account  of  his  meter.  The  amount  of  harsh  language 
through  circumstances  like  these  is  beyond  description ; 
and  our  task  is  to  endeavor  to  explain  and  show  the  accu- 
racy and  justice  of  the  instrument  in  question.  But  at 
the  same  time  we  do  not  pretend  that  it  is  impossible  for 
a  meter  to  err ;  it  may  have  been  wrongly  constructed. 
This  is,  however,  very  unlikely,  for  upon  its  correctness 
rests  the  reputation  of  the  manufacturer.  If  constructed 
erroneously,  it  is  a  witness  against  him  at  all  times  ;  to- 
morrow, or  twenty  years  after,  there  it  is,  a  proof.  Hence 
the  necessity  for  gas-meter  manufacturers  to  employ  every 
care  and  accuracy  in  these  machines. 

In  this  chapter  we  hope  to  be  enabled  to  show  that 
although  gas  is  invisible,  it  is  capable  of  being  meas- 
ured with  the  same  accuracy  and  certainty  as  liquids  — 
that  its  volume  or  bulk  is  just  as  palpable  as  water,  or 
any  other  substance ;  and  gas  consumers  should  thor- 
oughly understand  this,  in  order  to  avoid  those  prejudices 
against  the  gas-meter  which  unfortunately  too  frequently 
exist. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  gas  measures,  the  one  called 
the  "  wet  meter,"  on  account  of  it  requiring  to  be  par- 
tially filled  with  water  to  render  it  effective  ;  the  other  is 
called  the  udry  meter,"  because  it  requires  no  liquid, 
6 


82  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

being  complete  in  itself.     The  wet  meter  being  the  first 
kind  employed,  merits  priority  of  description. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   WET   METER. 

The  first  wet  gas-meter  was  patented  by  the  late  Sam- 
uel Clegg,  of  England,  in  the  year  1815.  This  instru- 
ment was  very  far  from  being  a  practical  machine,  but 
subsequently  was  brought  to  a  much  higher  state  of  per- 
fection by  John  Malam  and  Samuel  Crosley. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  companies  did  not  at  first 
encourage  the  use  of  gas-meters ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
majority  actually  opposed  them,  although  for  some  years 
their  operations  were  attended  with  serious  loss,  mainly 
caused  by  the  extravagance  or  dishonesty  of  their  con- 
sumers, many  of  whom,  not  content  with  lighting  their 
premises  most  wastefully  during  the  hours  assigned  to 
them,  actually  heated  them  day  and  night  with  the  gas, 
often  burning  six  or  eight  times  the  quantity  for  which 
they  contracted  and  paid  for.  Other  systems  of  fraud 
existed  —  by  substituting  larger  burners,  or  placing  extra 
lights  without  advising  the  company,  and  of  course  witlv 
out  payment ;  and  all  the  personal  surveillance  of  the 
companies'  officers  was  not  sufficient  to  counteract  these 
evils.  ^ 

At  that  time,  when  increase  of  business  to  gas  com- 
panies only  increased  their  loss,  they  resolved  to  try  the 
use  of  meters  —  a  wise  decision,  that  has  done  immense 
service  for  the  propagation  of  gas.  This  effected,  they 
began  to  understand  their  interests ;  and  reduced  the 
price  of  gas  by  meter,  and  ultimately  in  many  cases 
enforced  the  use  of  the  instruments,  so  that  the  econom- 
ical no  longer  paid  for  the  extravagant ;  and  the  latter, 


THE    GAS-METER.  83 

who  formerly  burned  without  consideration,  then  began 
to  understand  the  loss  they  had  entailed  on  the  com- 
panies. 

Once  the  gas-meter  perfected  and  manufactured,  it  was 
just  as  absurd  to  sell  gas  by  contract  as  to  supply  oil  or 
any  other  valuable  commodity  to  the  public  indiscrim- 
inately, and  leave  this  at  their  discretion. 

The  measurement  of  liquids  is  easily  understood ;  for 
by  their  opaqueness  they  are  visible,  and  by  their  weight 
they  readily  flow  from  one  vessel  to  another,  and  it  is  thus 
a  simple  operation.  But  with  gas  or  air  (both,  of  which 
are  alike  in  bulk  and  measurement)  the  case  is  different ; 
these  are  invisible,  and  so  light  that  they  require  a  pecu- 
liar manipulation  to  retain  them,  and  prevent  their  loss. 
The  operation  of  measuring  them  is,  therefore,  necessarily 
more  complicated. 

A  decanter,  or  bottle,  or  any  other  vessel  which  we 
call  in  ordinary  language  empty,  is  in  reality  full  of  the 
air  we  breathe.  This  is  made  evident  by  hastily  filling 
a  decanter  with  water,  when  we  observe  the  struggle 
between  the  air  rushing  out  and  the  water  going  in ;  or 
•  in  emptying  the  same  hurriedly,  the  bubbles  of  air  are 
observed  to  struggle  to  enter  and  replace  the  liquid 
coming  out. 

To  illustrate. in  a  more  striking  manner  the  bulk  of  air  or 
gas,  we  will  suppose  two  glass  vessels,  say  tumblers,  both 
of  about  the  same  depth,  but  the  one  so  much  larger  in 
diameter  than  the  other,  as  to  permit  the  smaller  to  enter 
freely  in  it.  The  larger  is  filled  with  water,  and  the 
smaller  inverted,  held  by  the  hand,  and  allowed  gradually 
to  descend  until  it  reaches  the  bottom. 

Whilst  descending,  the  greater  part  of  the  water  in  the 
larger  glass  overflows,  which  is  equal  in  bulk  to  the  air 


contained  in  the  smaller  glass,  and  that  par^  of  it  which 
is  immersed  ;  but  it  will  be  observed  that  water  does  not 
enter  the  inverted  glass,  the  space  therein  being  already 
occupied  by  the  air. 

If  we  now  take  a  very  similar  apparatus,  but  the  larger 
glass  having  in  its  centre  a  vertical  pipe  p,  which  rises 
above  its  edge,  and  is  open  throughout  to  the  atmosphere 
at  the  bottom  ;  on  the  larger  glass  being  filled  with  water, 
the  other  inverted  and  allowed  gradually  to  descend  as 
before,  then  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  water  over- 
flows, this  being  merely  equal  to  the  bulk  of  the  glass 
immersed ;  the  water  enters  the  smaller  glass,  expelling 
the  air  therefrom  through  the  pipe  p  to  the  atmosphere  ; 
and  when  this  reaches  the  bottom,  it  will  be  full  of  water. 
If  again  it  be  lifted  gradually,  air  will  enter,  and  when 
at  the  top,  as  represented  in.  fig.  8,  will  be  filled  with  air. 


Fig.  8. 


Here  we  haye  a  very  simple  means  of  illustrating  the 
measurement  of  air ;  for  if  the  inverted  glass  be  of  the 
capacity  of  half  a  pint,  each  time  it  is  raised  from  the 


THE    GAS-METER. 


85 


bottom  to  the  top,  it  receives  that  quantity  of  air  from 
the  atmosphere  ;  and  each  time  it  is  caused  to  descend,  it 
expels  the  same.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  pipe  were  in 
communication  with  gas,  this  would  be  measured  with 
the  same  facility  as  the  air. 

The  accompanying  sketch  (fig.  9)  shows  similar,  but 
larger  vessels.     The  inner  vessel  or  bell,  instead  of  being 


Fig.  9. 

held  by  the  hand,  is  now  suspended  to  two.  columns,  and 
nearly  counterbalanced  by  cords  and  weights,  c  c,  just 
leaving  it  sufficiently  heavy  to  expel  the  air  or  gas  when 


86  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

required.  There  are  two  pipes — the  one,  w,  we  will 
suppose  to  convey  the  gas  from  the  company's  works ; 
the  other  pipe,  c,  to  convey  it  to  the  consumers'  premises. 
Each  of  which  has  its  respective  tap,  w  and  c. 

The  tap  c  being  shut,  and  tap  w  open,  and  in  commu- 
nication with  the  company's  main,  the  gas,  by  the  force  or 
pressure  with  which  it  is  expelled  from  the  manufactory, 
enters  through  the  pipe  w,  and  pressing  or  forcing  itself 
between  the  surface  of  the  water  and  underneath  the  bell, 
causes  this  to  rise  —  the  force  of  the  gas  now  doing  that 
which  was  formerly  done  by  the  hand  —  until  in  the  posi- 
tion of  sketch,  when  the  bell  will  be  full  of  gas.  Proper 
appliances  are  of  course  adapted  to  prevent  the  mouth  of 
the  vessel  rising  out  of  the  water. 

If  now  the  tap  w  be  shut,  and  tap  c  open,  the  weight 
of  the  bell  (as  before  stated,  not  being  entirely  counter- 
balanced) will  expel  the  gas  to  the  burners  of  the  con- 
sumers. So  thai  if  we  suppose  it  to  contain  6J  gallons, 
or  one  cubic  foot,  each  time  in  rising  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top,  it  receives  that  quantity  of  gas  from  the  com- 
pany, and  each  time  in  descending  it  expels  the  same  to 
the  consumers'  burners. 

If  to  this  apparatus  we  adapt  a  simple  mechanism  to 
cause  the  taps  to  open  and  shut,  by  the  rising  and  de- 
scending of  the  bell,  and  another  to  indicate  on  a  dial  the 
number  of  times  it  had  been  filled  and  emptied,  or  in  other 
words,  the  quantity  delivered  by  the  company,  and  received 
by  the  consumer,  then  we  have  a  clear  idea  how  gas  can 
be  measured  by  a  self-acting  instrument. 

The  tank  and  bell  just  described  are  similar  to  the  im- 
mense gas-holders,  or  stores,  in  every  gas-manufactory. 
The  water  in  the  tank  serves  three  purposes  :  it  prevents 
the  gas  escaping  or  intermixing  with  the  atmosphere ;  it 


THE    GAS-METER.  87 

is  the  means  of  resistance  for  the  gas  to  raise  the  bell  or 
holder  ;  lastly,  it  displaces  or  expels  the  gas. 

To  approach  gradually  in  describing  the  meter,  let  us 
conceive  that  the  supply  of  a  liquid,  as  water,  etc.,  in 
being  measured,  required  to  be  delivered  with  the  same 
uniformity  as  gas  ;  and  for  the  purpose,  we  may  imagine 
a  rude  self-acting  machine,  as  shown  in  fig.  10. 


Fig.  10. 

Here  it  will  be  observed  there  are  four  vessels  of  known 
capacity  attached  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  to  axle  a, 
with  which  they  revolve.  The  axle  is  supported  by,  and 
revolves  freely,  in  suitable  bearings,  which,  for  simplicity, 
are  not  shown.  The  vessels  are  filled  successively  by 
hand  or  otherwise,  there  being  suitable  mechanical  means 
to  prevent  them  moving,  until  each  in  succession  is  quite 
full..  As  seen  in  sketch,  vessel  No.  1  is  being  supplied 
with  the  liquid  to  be  measured ;  and  No.*4,  which  has 
been  filled,  is  emptying  itself.  When  No.  1  is  full,  by  the 
action-  of  the  weight  of  the  liquid  contained  therein,  it 


88  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

suddenly  descends,  bringing  No.  2  in  the  position  to  be 
filled  ;  at  the  same  time,  vessel  No.  1  is  emptied  ;  then,  No. 
2  being  filled,  descends,  bringing  vessel  No.  3  in  position 
to  be  filled ;  and  so  on  continuously,  causing  the  vessels 
to  revolve  with  the  axle  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows, 
so  long  as  there  is  a  supply  of  liquid.  We  will  suppose 
each  of  these  vessels  to  contain  one  quart,  so  that  each 
time  they  revolve,  four  quarts,  or  one  gallon  of  liquid, 
must  be  received  and  delivered  by  them  ;  and  in  order  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  continuously  counting  each  revolu- 
tion of  the  measures,  or  in  other  words,  the  quantity 
received  and  delivered,  we  make  it  a  self-recording  in- 
strument. 

This  would  be  done  by  fixing  on  the  axle  a  suitable 
screw  or  worm,  working  into  a  toothed  wheel  in  commu- 
nication with  a  dial ;  thus  if  the  wheel  had  twenty  teeth, 
the  measures,  in  revolving  twenty  times,  would  cause  its 
axle  to  revolve  once,  and  indicate  20  gallons  ;  and  the 
motion  being  further  communicated  to  an  index  by  suit- 
able wheelvvork,  the  quantity  passing  would  be  recorded 
with  much  greater  accuracy  than  any  human  supervision 
could  attain. 

This  supposed  instrument  is  based  on  precisely  the  same 
principle  as  the  gas-meter ;  for  in  the  latter,  there  are 
four  measuring  vessels  attached  to,  and  revolving  with  a 
shaft,  which  are  filled  with  gas,  and  emptied  in  succession, 
and  the  number  of  times  they  revolve,  or  the  quantity  of 
gas  received  from  the  company  and  delivered  to  the  con- 
sumer, is  indicated  on  the  dial  of  index,  a  similar  appar- 
atus to  those  mentioned,  but  differing  in  shape — for 
instead  of  the.  vessels  being  cylindrical,  as  shown  in  figs. 
8  and  9,  or  like  quart  measures,  as  in  fig.  10,  they  are 
now  each  of  the  form  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  cylinder  or 


THE    GAS-METER.  89 

drum,  which  works  on  a  hinge  or  axle,  so  that  in  filling, 
it  makes  the  fourth  part  of  a  revolution.  When  expel- 
ling the  gas,  it  of  course  moves  in  the  opposite  direction. 
There  are  two  corresponding  pipes  for  the  admission  and 
emission  of  the  gas,  similar  to  those  mentioned  in  the 
former  illustration.  (See  fig.  9.) 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  observe  that  the  alteration 
of  shape  or  mode  of  action  does  not  make  any  change  in 
the  principle  ;  a  self-acting  apparatus  for  the  supply,  and 
recording  mechanism  for  the  index,  would  convert  this, 
like  the  last,  into  a  means  of  measuring  gas. 

Let  us  now  imagine  such  apparatus  in  combination,  the 
chambers  for  the  gas  being  attached  together,  and  work- 
ing on  the  same  axle  A  in  a  suitable  tank  filled  with 
water  (as  shown  in  fig.  11),  with  corresponding  pipes 


Fig.  11. 

for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  gas.  Here  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  chamber  c  is  filled  with  gas,  and  that 
marked  w  nearly  filled  with  water  ;  if  now  the  gas  from 
the  company  be  allowed  to  enter  chamber  w  by  its 


90  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

corresponding  pipe,  which  protrudes  just  above  the  water 
level,  the  force  of  the  gas  entering  iv  would  cause  it  to 
rise  and  fill,  expelling  at  the  same  time  the  gas  from  c, 
both  chambers  making  the  fourth  part  of  a  revolution  in 
the  direction  of  the  arrows,  when  w  would  be  full  of  gas, 
and  the  other,  c,  immersed  in  the  water.  This  demon- 
strates very  clearly  how  gas,  by  the  force  with  which  it 
issues  from  the  works,  is  capable,  when  entering  one 
chamber,  of  expelling  that  which  exists  in  another  in 
combination  with  it. 

If  now  we  make  the  action  just  explained  continuous 
by  having  four  chambers  attached  to  the  same  axle,  and 
causing  the  gas  to  enter  them  successively,  always  at  the 
side  w,  and  to  expel  that  from  the  chambers  at  the  side  c, 
then  a  rotary  and  continuous  motion  and. supply  would 
be  the  result  —  and  this  is~  precisely  what  occurs  with  the 
wet  gas-meter. 

The  annexed  figure  (12)  is  a  section  of  the  instrument 
when  in  operation  ;  a  a  a  a  is  the  outer  case,  filled  with 
water  a  short  distance  above  the  centre,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  ;  in  this  is  a  cylindrical  vessel,  b  b  b  Z>,  called 
the  "  drum,"  which  revolves  freely  on  its  axle  a.  This 
vessel  is  divided  by  the  partitions  p  p  p  p  into  four  distinct 
measuring  chambers,  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  and  by  a  very  in- 
genious contrivance  the  pipes  alluded  to  in  former  illus- 
trations are  dispensed  with  —  the  passages  for  the  ingress 
and  egress  of  the  gas  being  attached  to  each  respective 
chamber,  which  passages  are  opened  and  closed  in  suc- 
cession as  desired,  through  the  intervention  of  the  water 
and  the  revolving  motion  of  the  drum. 

The  gas,  in  the  act  of  being  measured,  enters  the  cham- 
bers alternately  ;  that  marked  1,  as  seen,  has  just  received 
its  supply,  and  is  full,  when  both  its  inlet  and  outlet  are 


THE    GAS-METER.  91 

closed  by  the  water ;  but  as  the  gas  enters  chamber  2, 
it  expels  that  from  chamber  4,  and  the  drum  moving 
round  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  opens  the  outlet  of 
chamber  1,  from  which,  in  its  turn,  the  gas  is  likewise 


Fig.  12. 

expelled  ;  afterwards  chamber  2  attains  the  central  posi- 
tion, when,  having  its  supply  of  gas,  the  passages  thereto 
are  closed  ;  and  so  on  continuously,  the  drum  revolving, 
receiving  gas  from  the  company,  and  delivering  it  to  the 
consumer  as  required,  the  water  entering  freely  into  the 
various  chambers,  and  so  expelling  the  gas. 

It  is  evident  that  if  each  of  these  chambers  be  of  the 
capacity  of  one-fourth  of  a  cubic  foot,  that  every  time 
the  drum  revolves,  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  must  be  deliv- 
ered by  the  company  and  received  by  the  consumer  ;  and 
if  the  number  of  these  revolutions  be  recorded  on  the 
.index  by  a  simple  train  of  wheelwork,  then  it  can  be 


92  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

easily  understood  how  the  quantity  of  gas  which  has 
passed  can  be  faithfully  measured. 

The  measuring  drums  of  these  instruments  are  made 
in  accordance  with  the  quantity  of  gas  to  be  consumed 
from  them.  That  for  a  meter  for  five  lights  contains  one- 
fourth  of  a  foot,  for  ten  lights  one-half  a  foot,  and  so  ou 
in  proportion. 

But  it  will  be  observed,  on  referring  to  last  figure,  that 
each  of  the  compartments,  when  filled  with  gas,  is  defined 
at  the  side  nearest  the  axle,  by  the  water,  and  if  no  pro- 
vision were  made  to  regulate  the  height  of  this,  their 
capacity  would  be  increased  or  decreased,  according  to 
the  level  of  that,  when  the  instrument  would  be  useless. 
TMs,  however,  as  will  be  seen,  is  arranged  in  a  very 
simple  manner. 


Fig.  is. 


Fig.  13  represents  the  front  part  of  a  meter,  with 


THE   GAS-METER.  93 

the  plate  removed  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  interior  : 
a  is  the  inlet,  b  the  outlet ;  /  is  a  float  attached  to  the 
cover  of  a  valve,  which  is  enclosed  in  the  box  v  ;  when 
there  is  a  sufficiency  of  water,  this  float  lifts  the  cover, 
opens  the  valve,  and  permits  of  the  free  passage  of  the 
gas ;  but  in  the  event  of  the  water  being  below  its  proper 
level,  the  float  falls,  closes  the  valve,  and  stops  the  sup- 
ply of  gas.  In  order  to  provide  against  the  other 
contingency  —  an  excess  of  water  —  there  is  a  pipe  e, 
through  which  the  gas  must  pass  to  be  consumed  ;  the  top 
of  this  pipe  is  exactly  at  the  desired  height  for  the  proper 
level  of  the  water,  therefore  any  surplus  will  pass  down 
this  to  the  box  beneath  ;  and  should  there  be  a  consid- 
erable excess,  the  passage  of  the  gas  will  be  stopped 
thereby;  g  is  the  axle,  having 'at  its  extremity  a  worm 
or  screw,  which  works  into  the  toothed  wheel  h,  and  so 
conveys  to  the  index  the  number  of  times  the  wheel  re- 
volves, or  the  quantity  of  gas  consumed. 

With  this  meter,  it  sometimes  happens  that  sudden 
extinction  takes  place,  putting  the  premises  in  total  dark- 
ness, and  serious  delay  ensues  before  the  gas-fitter  can  be 
found  ;  it  is  therefore  essential  the  consumer  should  be 
enabled  in  such  extreme  cases  to  correct  the  evil  himself. 

To  remedy  this,  shut  the  main  tap,  turn  on  one  of  the 
taps  of  the  burners,  take  out  the  plugs,  c  and  d  (see  fig. 
13),  and  at  the  orifice  d  pour  in  gently  a  small  quantity 
of  water  until  it  issues  from  the  orifice  c ;  and  on  this 
ceasing  to  flow  the  plugs  must  be  carefully  replaced,  when 
the  meter  will  be  in  working  order.  But  the  opposite  of 
this  —  an  excess  of  water  —  may  occur,  when  by  simply 
taking  out  the  plug  c,  and  allowing  it  to  flow  out,  on 
replacing  the  plug,  the  supply  will  be  resumed.  In  such 
cases,  it  is  imperative  that  no  light  be  approached  near 


94  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

the  meter ;  the  strictest  care  should  be  taken  to  replace 
the  plugs,  and  the  main  tap  should  be  shut  during  the 
operation. 

A  difficulty  in  severe  frosty  weather,  when  this  meter  is 
exposed  to  its  influence,  is  that  the  liquid  therein  freezes, 
and  prevents  the  gas  passing.  In  this  case  a  small  quan- 
tity of  boiling  water  should  be  poured  into  the  orifice  rf, 
and  after  a  lapse  of  a  few  minutes  the  surplus  allowed  to 
flow  from  the  plug  c.  When  a  wet  meter  is  placed  in  an 
exposed  position,  it  should  be  embedded  in  some  non- 
conducting material,  such  as  straw,  sawdust,  etc.,  which 
will  prevent  the  water  therein  from  freezing. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   THE    DRY   METER. 

If  a  small  balloon  be  attached  to  the  company's  pipe 
and  filled  with  gas,  which  is  afterwards  detached  and 
pressed  between  two  flat  surfaces  or  plates,  so  as  to  expel 
the  whole  of  its  contents  into  any  receptacle,  it  is  certain 
that,  if  the  capacity  of  the  balloon  be  known,  by  this 
means  gas  could  be  measured  with  the  same  facility  as 
liquids  ;  for  if  it  •  hold  exactly  a  cubic  foot  each  time  on 
being  filled,  that  quantity  of  gas  would  be  delivered  by 
the  company,  and  on  being  emptied,  would  be  received 
by  the  consumer.  Although  this  is  not  practically  useful, 
it  will  illustrate  in  a  simple  manner  the  operation  of  the 
dry  meter. 

The  dry  meter,  now  most  extensively  manufactured 
and  used,  consists  of  a  quadrangular  case,  divided  into 
two  chambers  ;  the  lower  and  larger  containing  two  flex- 
ible measuring  vessels,  these,  with  their  corresponding 
valves,  being  necessary  to  give  uniformity  of  action.  The 
upper  chamber  contains  two  slide  valves,  for  the  ingress 


THE    GAS-METER. 


95 


and  egress  of  the  gas  ;  with  means  of  communicating 
motion  thereto,  also  means  of  indicating  on  the  dial  the 
number  of  times  the  measuring  vessels  are  filled  and 
emptied,  or  in  other  words,  the  quantity  of  gas  passed. 


Fig.  14. 

Fig.  14  represents  a  side  view  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
meter,  where  the  measuring  is  effected,  the  outer  case 
being  divided  by  a  partition  (p)  into  two  distinct  com- 
partments, and  in  each  of  these  is  a  flexible  gas-tight 
chamber,  formed  by  the  rings,  r  r  (which  are  soldered  to 
the  partition  p),  the  disks,  d  d,  and  the  leather  bands,  1 1 ; 
each  band  is  firmly  attached  to  its  ring  r,  and  disk  e?,  re- 
sembling in  form  and  action  a  flattened  balloon  attached 
to  two  plates.  Thus  there  are  four  distinct  measuring 
chambers,  numbered  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  into  which  the  gas 
passes  in  and  out  alternately  by  their  corresponding  ori- 
fices, in  communication  with  their  respective  slide  valvea 


96 


THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


— the  disks  being  supported  by  the  vertical  rods,  h  h,  and 
moving  to  and  fro  according  as  the  flexible  chambers  of 
which  they  form  part  are  filled  and  emptied. 


<L 


Fig.  15. 

Fig.  15  is  a  front  view  of  the  meter.  A  is  the  inlet,  B 
the  outlet,  d  one  of  the  disks  attached  to  the  leather  band 
?,  constituting  one  of  the  flexible  chambers.  The  disks 
work  freely  on  the  supports  s,  which  are  attached  to  the 
vertical  rods  h  7i,  and  these  pass  through  stuffing-boxes  to 
the  chamber  c  above,  where  are  situated  the  slide  valves 
v,  which  are  caused  to  open  and  shut  as  required  by  the 
levers  R  R.  The  guides  g  g  keep  the  disks  always  in  the 
same  plane,  and  the  leather  bands  have  their  peculiar 


THE    GAS-METER.  97 

form  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  greatest  freedom 
of  action  and  durability. 

The  operation  of  the  meter  is  this.  The  gas  to  be 
measured  passes  by  the  pipe  A,  and  fron\  thence  into  the 
box  containing  the  valves  v,  and  as  seen  in  fig.  15,  gas  is 
entering  chamber  2,  and  expelling  that  from  chamber  1. 
The  gas  will  afterwards  pass  into  chamber  3,  and  expel 
that  from  4,  so  being  received  and  delivered  by  the  va- 
rious chambers  continuously  —  the  disks  moving  to  and 
fro,  receiving  gas  on  one  side,  and  expelling  it  from  the 
other  as  described  ;  and  the  distance  through  which  these 
move,  cpnsidered  with  their  respective  areas,  will  neces- 
sarily be  equal  to  the  volume  of  gas  received  and  expelled. 
For  example,  if  the  area  of  each  disk  be  exactly  one 
superficial  foot,  and  if  each  of  these  move  through  a  dis- 
tance of  three  inches,  either  when  the  chambers  are  being 
filled  or  emptied,  then  the  quantity  of  gas  received  and 
delivered  by  the  four  measuring  chambers  would  be  equal 
to  one  cubic  foot.  The  action  being  continuous,  the 
quantity  of  gas  passing  is  indicated  on  the  dial  of  index 
by  a  suitable  wheel  with  the  strictest  accuracy. 

The  other  dry  meter  in  general  usage  is  that  known  as 
Defries's.  This  consists  of  an  upright  cylindrical  vessel, 
divided  horizontally  into  two  distinct  parts,  the  lower 
being  considerably  larger  than  the  upper.  The  lower 
part  is  divided  from  its  axis  to  the  periphery  into  three 
separate  vertical  compartments,  and  these  again  are  sub- 
divided vertically  by  square  flexible  partitions,  composed 
of  leather  and  metallic  shields,  so  forming  six  different 
measuring  chambers.  Each  of  these  partitions  is  set  in 
motion  alternately  by  the  force  of  the  gas,  and  when 
distended  to  the  utmost,  assumes  a  form  similar  to  a 
pyramid,  first  on  the  one  side,  then  on  the  other,  and  the 
7 


98  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

volume  of  gas  received  and  expelled  is  equal  to  the  space 
through  which  the  partitions  travel  to  and  fro. 

The  centre  of  these  partitions  are  in  communication 
with  vertical  rods  which  pass  to  the  upper  division  of  the 
meter,  and  by  means  of  levers  attached  to  them,  give 
motion  to  a  rotary  valve,  which  admits  and  emits  the  gas 
alternately  to  the  respective  chambers,  similar  in  operation 
to  those  already  described.  The  quantity  of  gas  displaced 
by  each  vibration  of  the  series  of  flexible  partitions  being 
known,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how,  by  a  suitable  train 
of  wheel  work,  the  gas,  in  its  passage,  may  be  indicated 
with  the  utmost  precision  on  the  dial  of  the  index. 

Having  thus  described  both  wet  and  dry  meters,  I 
must  observe  there  are  few  subjects  upon  which  greater 
opposition  of  opinion  exists  than  on  the  relative  merits  of 
these  two  classes  of  machines  ;  for  while  some  companies 
use  exclusively  the  one,  others  employ  only  the  other, 
they  being  principally  guided  in  their  selection  by  their 
respective  engineers.  However,  much  of  the  opposition 
to  the  use  of  the  dry  meter  may,  undoubtedly,  be  due  to 
old  prejudice.  Twenty-five  years  ago,  the  wet  meter  only 
existed ;  since  then  the  other  has  been  created,  and  has 
proved  a  most  formidable  rival  to  its  more  ancient  op- 
ponent. 

Meters  are  made  of  certain  sizes,  according  to  the 
number  of  lights  to  be  supplied.  They  are  usually  con- 
structed respectively  for  3,  5,  10,  20,  30,  50,  and  60 
lights,  etc. ;  between  these  there  are  no  intermediate 
sizes.  In  the  choice  of  the  size  of  a  meter  for  premises, 
it  is  not  only  necessary  to  consider  the  number  of  lights, 
but  the  quantity  of  gas  to  be  consumed.  The  lights  for 
which  they  are  made  are  calculated  to  consume  about  6 
feet  per  hour  each  ;  therefore  a  5-light  meter  will  supply 


THE    GAS.-METER.  99 

30  feet  per  hour,  and  this  may  be  distributed  in  any  num- 
ber of  lights,  so  long  as  the  quantity  is  not  much  exceeded. 
When  the  pressure  in  the  company's  main  is  abundant, 
the  quantity  can  be  increased  ;  but  a  difficulty  which  then 
arises  is,  that  the  float  referred  to  in  the  wet  meter  is 
liable  to  close  the  valve,  and  suddenly  extinguish  the  gas. 

By  the  foregoing  it  will  be  remarked  that  the  meter 
indicates  the  quantity  or  volume  of  gas  passing,  but  has 
no  reference  to  the  quality  of  that  employed  ;  the  latter 
is  of  important  consideration,  as  with  an  inferior  descrip- 
tion of  gas  a  greater  quantity  will  be  required  to  produce 
a  given  light ;  it  is,  moreover,  the  direct  interest  of  com- 
panies to  furnish  good  gas,  in  order  to  insure  an  increased 
number  of  consumers ;  besides,  the  difference  between 
the  cost  of  production  of  good  and  bad  gas,  when  derived 
from  the  best 'coal,  is  next  to  nominal. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  Which  is  the  best  meter, 
the  wet  or  dry  ?  —  which  burns  the  least  gas  ?  In  reply 
to  this,  they  each  possess  certain  advantages.  The  wet 
meter  is  considered  the  most  durable,  particularly  when 
the  outer  case  is  of  cast-iron,  and,  on  account  of  sim- 
plicity of  construction,  is  not  so  liable  as  the  other  to 
injury  in  transport.  Against  this,  dry  meters  have  the 
advantage  of  requiring  no  attention  for  the  supply  or  ab- 
straction of  water  ;  they  are  not  liable  to  obstruction  by 
frost ;  they  do  not,  like  the  other,  occasion  deposits  of 
water  in  fittings ;  nor  are  they  susceptible  of  sudden 
extinction.  Respecting  the  question  of  measurement, 
whether  this  be  effected  by  the  wet  or  dry  meter,  it  is 
alike,  there  being  no  more  difference  between  them  in  this 
respect  than  in  the  measurement  of  liquids  by  a  copper 
or  tin  vessel ;  but,  as  explained,  much  remains  with  the 
consumer  to  apply  gas  thus  measured  to  the  best  advan- 


100  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

tage.  There  is  no  operation  where  a  stricter  surveil- 
lance is  kept  than  by  the  gas-meter.  A  light,  if  only 
burned  for  a  few  minutes,  is  faithfully  noted ;  if  there 
should  exist  an  escape  of  the  most  minute  description  on 
the  premises,  it  is  recorded  by  that  instrument ;  and  any 
waste,  any  carelessness  or  extravagance,  will  be  most 
assuredly  confirmed  by  it ;  therefore  consumers  who  desire 
economy  should  attach  all  importance  to  its  functions. 

The  method  of  furnishing  meters  is  variable.  Some 
companies  supply  them  on  hire,  making  a  small  quarterly 
charge  for  them.  Some  furnish  them  without  any  charge 
or  rental,  and  in  making  this  concession  they  are  gener- 
ally rewarded  by  a  considerable  increase  of  business. 
Other  companies  require  the  consumer  to  purchase  his 
own  meter ;  this  is  a  privilege  which  every  one  can  ex- 
ercise should  he  prefer  it ;  but  in  this  case,  in  the  event 
of  it  requiring  reparation  at  any  time,  the  expense  and 
inconvenience  must  be  borne  by  the  consumer  ;  whereas 
if  he  employs  that  of  the  company,  all  charges  are  in- 
cluded in  the  rental. 

Whilst  on  this  subject,  we  will  refer  to  some  popular 
errors  entertained  by  a  certain  class  of  people  who  believe 
and  assert  that  companies  force  the  gas  with  undue  pres- 
sure, in  order  to  cause  the  meters  to  "  spin  round  faster," 
and  so  tell  unfairly  against  the  buyer.  This,  although 
often  asserted,  is  completely  ridiculous,  inasmuch  as  any 
increased  pressure  could  not  cause  the  meter  to  go  quicker, 
unless  the  consumer  permitted  the  gas  to  be  wasted.  The 
meter  is  a  measurer  of  volume,  and  unless  a  certain  vol- 
ume passes,  it  cannot  be  registered  ;  and  if  the  consumer 
exercises  ordinary  care  it  cannot  pass.  On  the  contrary, 
the  interest  of  companies  is  to  deliver  their  gas  with  as 
weak  a  pressure  as  possible,  so  as  to  diminish  the  loss  by 


THE   GAS-METER.  101 

leakage  from  the  mains  in  the  streets,  which  always  un- 
avoidably occurs. 

Another  popular  error  is  that  companies  pump  air  into 
their  gas-holders  to  intermix  with  the  gas,  in  order  to 
increase  the  volume,  and  influence  the  indication  of  the 
meters.  The  gross  absurdity  of  this  will  be  apparent, 
when  it  is  stated  that  if  one  per  cent,  of  air  be  mixed 
with  gas,  the  illuminating  power  of  the  latter  is  di- 
minished about  six  per  cent. ;  and  if  one-fifth  of  air  be 
mixed  with  four-fifths  of  gas,  no  useful  light  can  be  derived 
from  the  compound. 


102 


THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

INDEX  OF  THE  GAS-METER. 

THE  recording  part  of  the  gas-meter,  or,  as  termed,  the 
index,  is  often  a  stumbling-block  with  consumers,  and  it 
is  a  matter  of  astonishment  that  people  do  not  take  a  little 
pains  to  understand  this  simple  instrument,  instead  of 
complaining  of  its  mystery,  and  remaining  dissatisfied  ;  for 
with  a  few  minutes'  attention,  a  knowledge  of  it  may  be 
acquired. 


Fig.  16. 

The  above  is  a  drawing  of  the  ordinary  wet  meter  index  ; 
the  cylinder  o  at  the  top  revolves,  and  by  means  of  the 
fixed  pointer  indicates  the  units  of  feet  passing.  This  is 
intended  for  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  instrument  by  short 
experiments  ;  it  likewise  serves  for  the  consumer  to  make 


INDEX   OF   THE    GAS-METER.  103 

any  brief  periodical  observations  of  his  consumption  ;  and 
lastly,  to  ascertain  if  there  be  any  loss  or  leakage' on  the 
premises. 

On  the  upper  part  of  the  dial  is  the  word  cents,  signify- 
ing that  cents,  or  hundreds  of  cubic  feet,  are  recorded 
thereon.  There  are  three  circles,  marked  in  sketch  A,  B, 
c.  Under  the  circle  c,  is  "Units,"  denoting  that  its 
pointer  indicates  units  of  hundreds  of  feet.  As  seen, 
the  quantity  of  500  feet  of  gas  has  passed.  But  in  due 
time,  when  1,000  feet  will  have  been  consumed,  the  pointer 
will  then  arrive  at  0,  when,  if  no  provision  were  made  to 
avoid  it,  the  account  would  be  lost. 

This,  however,  is  prevented  by  circle  B,  having  under- 
neath it  "Tens,"  denoting  tens  of  hundreds,  or  thousands 
of  feet.  Thus  while  the  pointer  of  circle  c  makes  an 
entire  revolution,  that  of  B  moves  from  one  figure  to  the 
next.  As  shown,  it  is  beyond  the  6,  indicating  6,000  and 
a  fraction  of  1,000,  that  fraction  being  the  500  recorded 
on  the  circle  c,  making  together  6,500  feet. 

Here,  again,  for  ordinary  purposes,  a  higher  denomi- 
nation is  required,  which  is  furnished  by  the  circle  A, 
having  beneath  it  "Hundreds" — that  is,  hundreds  of 
cents,  or  tens  of  thousands;  so  that  the  pointer  of  this 
circle  indicates  the  tens  of  thousands  of  feet  passed,  and 
is  a  distance  beyond  the  7,  indicating  that  70,000,  and  a 
fraction  of  10,000  (the  6,500  recorded  by  the  others), 
altogether  76,500,  feet  of  gas  passed  to  the  consumer. 

This  detail  is  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  oper- 
ation of  the  index,  but  in  practice  a  much  simpler  method 
is  adopted  to  ascertain  the  consumption.  This  is  done 
by  merely  noting  on  paper  the  numbers  each  respective 
pointer  has  passed,  and  marking  them  in  the  position  ad 


104 


THE    GAS-CONSUMER  S    GUIDE. 


seen ;  thus  765,  afterwards  adding  two  cyphers  (00)  for 
the  cents,  we  have  76,500  feet  indicated  by  the  meter. 

It  is  imperative  to  take  the  numbers  the  pointers  have 
passed,  inasmuch  as  that  of  A  could  not  be  at  8  until  that 
of  B  arrived  at  zero,  and  this  could  not  occur  until  the 
pointer  of  c  had  made  the  necessary  revolutions. 

Although  the  index  of  the  dry  meter  varies  slightly  in 
its  superscription,  in  reality  it  is  identical  with  that  de- 
scribed, the  difference  consisting  in  this  recording  "  cubic 
feet,"  instead  of  "  cents,"  and  each  of  the  circles  having 
above,  or  underneath  it,  the  total  quantity  indicated  by  a 
complete  revolution  of  its  respective  pointer. 


100  THOUSAND  lOTnousAND         1  THOUSAND 


Fig.  17. 

Fig.  17  is  a  representation  of  a  dry  meter  index,  the 
circle  at  top  in  centre  indicating  the  units  of  feet,  and  the 
others  show  89,300.  Here  will  be  observed  the  impor- 
tance of  taking  only  those  figures  which  the  pointers  have 
passed,  and  not  those  they  arrive  at ;  for  if  this  were  not 
strictly  attended  to,  the  indication  might  easily  be  mis- 
taken for  99,300,  so  committing  a  very  egregious  error. 

Supposing  the  consumer  to  understand  the  index  of  his 


INDEX   OF  THE   GAS-METER.  105 

meter,  it  then  becomes  his  duty  to  keep  check  against  the 
officers  of  the  gas  company,  in  the  same  manner  that  he 
verifies  goods  and  invoices  delivered  by  others ;  and  al- 
though if  an  error  were  to  be  committed  by  taking  the 
wrong  account  one  quarter,  it  would  be  rectified  the  next, 
still  it  is  far  better  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  misunder- 
standing. 

It  is  important  in  large  establishments  to  keep  periodical 
statements  of  the  consumption,  and  to  make  the  necessary 
comparisons,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  there  exists  any 
waste  or  loss. 

The  manner  of  keeping  the  statements  of  the  meter  is 
exceedingly  simple.  For  the  purpose  of  explanation,  we 
will  imagine  the  indication  at  the  end  of  a  quarter  to  be 
96,700,  and  that  of  the  previous  quarter,  89,300  ;  the 
latter  quantity  subtracted  from  the  former  gives  a  con- 
sumption of  7,400  feet  during  the  intervening  period. 
To  illustrate  a  difficulty  which  sometimes  occurs,  let  us 
conceive  the  consumption  during  the  following  quarter 
to  be  5,600,  when,  on  referring  to  the  index,  we  find 
it  only  shows  2,300.  This  is  often  a  cause  of  surprise ; 
but,  as  the  meter  can  indicate  only  up  to  100,000,  it 
follows  that  in  reality  this  must  be  102,300,  from  which 
the  former  consumption  is  subtracted.  In  all  subsequent 
notations  the  higher  denomination  is  omitted. 

The  inspectors  of  most  gas  companies  leave  a  statement 
of  the  meter  index,  with  the  quantity  consumed  at  the 
time  of  their  making  the  observation,  which  the  consumer 
should  take  the  trouble  to  verify. 

It  is  often  argued  by  dissatisfied  consumers,  as  there  is 
wheel  or  clockwork  in  a  gas-meter,  that,  like  the  clock, 
it  must  be  subject  to  variation.  Than  this  nothing  can 
be  more  erroneous.  The  wheelwork  of  a  clock  is  the 


106  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

perfection  of  mechanism,  for  it  records  faithfully  and  con- 
tinuously the  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  ;  these  vibrations 
are  made  to  correspond  with"  certain  periods  of  time,  and 
so  long  as  the  pendulum  moves  at  the  precise  speed  cal- 
culated, the  clock  will  be  correct ;  but  any  deviation  from 
this  causes  it  to  vary.  Therefore  the  defect  is  not  occa- 
sioned by  the  wheelwork,  but  by  the  pendulum. 

With  the  gas-meter,  the  wheelwork  records  on  the 
dial  the  number  of  times  the  measuring  chambers  have 
been  filled  and  emptied.  These,  as  we  have  shown,  are 
not  susceptible  of  variation,  so  that  there  is  no  comparison 
between  the  action  of  the  clock  and  gas-meter,  except  as 
regards  the  unfailing  accuracy  of  the  wheelwork. 

The  gas-meter,  when  once  properly  made,  cannot  in- 
dicate against  the  consumer,  as  each  of  the  measuring 
vessels  must  be  filled  and  emptied  in  succession  the 
necessary  number  of  times  before  the  dial  can  record  the 
corresponding  quantity ;  but  by  wear  and  tear,  and  acci- 
dental damage,  it  may  indicate  to  the  prejudice  of  the 
company,  and  only  register  a  portion,  or  perhaps  none 
of  the  gas  passing,  when  it  is  pronounced  to  be  "out  of 
action." 

This  defect  arises  from  a  small  hole  occurring  by  rust 
or  decay  in  part  of  the  case,  or  measuring-wheel,  of  the 
wet  meter,  or  in  the  case  or  leather  of  the  dry  meter,  by 
wear  and  tear,  or  other  contingencies,  which  permit  the 
gas  to  pass  without  being  measured. 

In  these  cases  the  defective  meter  is  replaced  by  a 
perfect  one.  The  result  of  such  exchange  is  often  unsat- 
isfactory to  the  consumer,  who  perhaps  for  years  has  only 
been  paying  for  a  portion  of  the  gas  consumed,  and  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  impress  him  with  the  equity  of 
the  case.  When  the  meter  has  not  registered,  it  is  cus- 


INDEX    OF   THE    GAS-METER.  107 

ternary  for  companies  to  charge  an  average  estimate 
account  from  previous  corresponding  quarters,  which  is 
the  only  equitable  manner  that  can  be  adopted  when  such 
contingencies  occur. 


108  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   GAS   REGULATOR. 

VARIOUS  circumstances  connected  with  the  distribution 
of  gas  cause  the  pressure  or  force  with  which  it  is  expelled 
from  the  company's  pipes  to  vary  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
occasion  great  irregularity  in  the  supply  to  the  consumer's 
premises  —  sometimes  at  one  period  during  the  evening 
there  being  just  a  sufficiency,  and  at  another  time  a  su- 
perabundance of  gas.  Under  such  conditions,  continued 
attention  is  required  on  the  part  of  the  consumer  to  adjust 
the  taps,  in  order  to  obtain  the  proper  degree  of  light,  or 
to  prevent  waste  of  gas,  with  production  of  smoke,  and 
breakage  of  glasses.  In  other  localities  there  is  always 
a  continuous  excess  of  pressure,  when,  if  improper  burn- 
ers be  used,  a  considerable  loss  of  the  available  light  from 
gas  is  the  serious  consequence,  as  shown  in  the  chapter 
on  burners.  These  inconveniences  are  avoided  by  the 
use  of  the  Gas  Regulator. 

This  is  a  small  self-acting  instrument,  generally  attached 
to  the  outlet  of  the  gas-meter  at  the  entrance  to  the 
premises,  and  contains  a  suspended  plug  or  cone,  which 
opens  or  closes  the  orifice  through  which  the  gas  passes, 
in  direct  accordance  with  the  decrease  or  increase  of  the 
pressure  in  the  company's  pipes.  By  this  means  the 
pressure  in  the  consumer's  premises  may  always  be  main- 


THE   GAS   REGULATOR.  109 

tained  at  one  uniformity,  so  long  as  there  is  a  sufficiency 
of  supply. 

Regulators  are  of  various  constructions,  but  all  embrace 
the  principle  just  mentioned.  Some  are  made  so  as  to 
require  oil  or  water  for  their  action.  The  first  possesses 
an  inconvenience  that  after  a  length  of  time  the  oil  con- 
geals. The  second  is  very  effective,  but  requires  to  be 
placed  in  a  situation  of  moderate  temperature,  to  prevent 
the  water  freezing  or  evaporating.  Others,  called  "dry" 
regulators,  are  made  with  a  flexible  partition  of  very  thin 
pliable  leather,  which  carries  the  suspended  cone  and 
adjusts  the  supply.  This  class  of  instrument  is  most  ex- 
tensively used  in  England  for  regulating  the  flames  of  the 
street  lamps,  and  is  becoming  very  much  employed  for 
consumers'  premises.  Another  instrument  of  the  kind  is 
called  the  "Mercurial"  regulator;  wherein  mercury  is 
applied  as  the  flexible  medium.  Many  of  this  description 
have  been  in  operation  for  twelve  or  fourteen  years  with- 
out requiring  the  iSast  attention  or  repair. 

The  regulator,  when  properly  constructed,  fulfils  the 
important  office  of  continuously  adjusting  the  supply  ;  and 
whether  one  burner  or  all  on  the  premises  be  lighted,  it 
is  equally  effective,  so  that  by  the  employment  of  proper 
burners,  already  alluded  to,  and  by  so  adjusting  the 
pressure  that  it  shall  not  exceed  four-tenths  on  the 
premises,  the  maximum  of  light  is  then  obtained  from  a 
given  quantity  of  gas,  there  is  no  irregularity  in  the 
height  of  the  flames,  there  is  no  waste,  and  but  little 
smoke.  The  economy  derived  by  the  use  of  the  regulator 
must  depend  on  circumstances,  such  as  the  pressure  of 
the  gas  in  the  locality,  the  care  previously  employed  in 
adjusting  the  lights,  the  kind  of  burners  employed  before 
and  after  using  the  instrument ;  but  it  is  by  no  means 


110  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

uncommon  for  a  saving  of  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  being 
effected  by  its  use,  and  still  retaining  the  same  amount 
of  light.  Professor  Silliman  gained  even  better  results 
than  these  by  using  a  regulator,  thereby,  as  he  stated, 
effecting  a  saving  of  nearly  50  per  cent.  Others,  how- 
ever, may  not  be  so  fortunate. 

To  obtain  the  .full  benefits  of  the  regulator,  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  pressure  yielded  thereby  does  not  exceed 
that  indicated ;  the  most  appropriate  burners  should  be 
adopted  to  consume  the  gas,  and  the  pipes  on  the  premises 
should  be  sufficiently  large,  so  as  to  enable  all  the  lights 
to  be  amply  supplied  with  the  diminished  pressure.  There 
are  some  localities,  although  exceedingly  rare,  where  the 
pressure  is  so  weak  and  uniform  as  to  render  the  instru- 
ment in  question  quite  useless  ;  but  wherever  the  reverse 
happens,  wherever  there  is  an  excess  or  irregularity  in 
the  pressure,  then,  for  the  objects  of  economy  and  comfort, 
the  regulator  is  indispensable. 

In  all  large  establishments  of  several  stories  high,  a 
distinct  regulator  is  essential  for  each  floor,  inasmuch  as 
gas,  by  its  lightness,  has  a  tendency  to  ascend  ;  so  that  in 
the  absence  of  this  instrument  there  is  often  an  excess  of 
gas  in  the  upper  portion  of  a  building,  whilst  the  lower 
premises  are  in  comparative  obscurity. 

Nevertheless,  with  all  the  various  advantages  enumerated 
to  be  attained  by  the  use  of  these  instruments,  it  very 
often  happens  that  they  are  most  unjustly  condemned  ;  for ' 
whenever  a  defect  exists,  such  as  a  partial  stoppage  in 
some  part  of  the  consumer's  fittings,  or  perhaps  from  these 
being  too  small,  or  more  frequently  through  defective 
burners,  the  gas-fitter,  instead  of  taking  the  trouble  to 
ascertain  the  defect  and  correct  it,  on  finding  a  regulator 
on  the  premises,  he  at  once  attributes  the  fault  to  this, 


THE   GAS   REGULATOR.  Ill 

which  is  removed,  and  much  to  the  prejudice  of  the  con- 
sumer's interest.  This  should  never  be  permitted ;  for 
although  the  instrument  prevents  an  excess  of  gas  to 
pass,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pipes  should  be  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  permit  it  to  be  employed  ;  and  if  any  alteration 
be  required  to  effect  this,  the  increased  expense  would  be 
trifling  when  compared  with  the  economy  to  be  derived. 
In  the  event  of  a.  proposition  being  made  to  remove  a 
regulator,  the  party  supplying  it  should  be  applied  to,  who 
for  his  credit's  sake  would  see  justice  done  to  it.  Hun- 
dreds of  these  instruments  have  been  displaced  from  cir- 
cumstances like  these,  bringing  an  amount  of  discredit 
upon  them  which  they  never  merited,  and  causing  con- 
sumers a  vast  unnecessary  expenditure  for  gas. 

The  term  regulator  is,  however,  very  often  misapplied  to 
arrangements  which  do  not  fulfil  the  object  desired.  Some 
of  these  are  small  vessels  filled  with  tow,  cotton,  shot,  etc., 
attached  to  the  burners,  which  obstruct  the  passage  of  the 
gas  when  the  pressure  is  great,  but  they  likewise  prevent 
a  proper  and  sufficient  supply  under  opposite  conditions. 
Indeed,  instead  of  economy  resulting  from  their  use,  some- 
times the  contrary  takes  place,  this  arising  from  the  con- 
sumer relying  on  the  efficiency  of  the  instrument,  and 
neglecting  to  pay  that  attention  to  the  adjustment  of  the 
taps  which  he  observed  previous  to  their  use.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  a  mode  of  adjusting  the  main  tap  by 
means  of  wires  in  communication  with  a  dial.  Although 
useful,  this  demands  repeated  attention,  and  never  insures 
the  economy  and  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  reg- 
ulators described. « 

When  a  reliable  regulator  cannot  be  obtained,  check 
taps  will  be  found  of  great  value,  provided  any  kind  of 
regulation  is  needful.  When  one  or  two  lights  are  fixed, 


112  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

proceed  to  turn  the  burner  taps  on,  then  adjust  the  main 
tap  so  as  to  pass  a  full  flame,  without  roaring  ;  you  may 
then  depend  upon  having  no  more  gas  in  the  house  or 
premises,  than  is  actually  wanted  for  consumption. 

In  large  buildings  a  check  tap  for  each  floor  or  story 
will  be  found  useful.  These  check  taps  do  not  diminish 
the  pressure,  but  lessen  the  quantity  passing  to  the  burners. 


VENTILATION.  113 


CHAPTER  X. 

VENTILATION. 

ALL  systems  of  artificial  illumination  have  a  deterior- 
ating effect  upon  the  air  of  an  apartment,  and,  if  possible, 
more  so  than  the  respiration  of  an  equivalent  number  of 
human  beings. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  proved  that  gas  (for  a  given 
quantity  of  light  produced)  is  more  salubrious  than  any 
other  material  employed  for  artificial  illumination ;  but 
on  its  introduction  anywhere,  a  considerable  increase  of 
light  is  invariably  required,  when  a  proportionate  increase 
of  heat  and  noxious  products  are  the  natural  result,  and, 
in  consequence,  additional  care  must  be  adopted,  so  that 
the  ventilation  should  be  in  accordance  therewith.  For 
the  purpose  of  making  the  subject  of  ventilation  intelli- 
gible, we  will  submit  to  the  reader  a  few  observations  on 
the  chemical  nature  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere, 
together  with  the  compounds  formed  during  combustion 
and  human  respiration. 

As  already  stated,  the  air  we  breathe  is  composed  of  two 
gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  proportions  of  about 
one-fifth  part  of  the  former  and  four-fifths  of  the  latter. 
Oxygen  may  be  termed  the  "aerial  food"  for  fire  and 
animal  life,  as  both  are  entirely  dependent  upon  it  for 
existence.  The  nitrogen  may  be  considered  .the  diluent 
of  this,  and  possesses  no  life-sustaining  properties. 

To  illustrate  the  action  of  oxygen  :  if  a  glass  tumbler 
8 


114  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

or  similar  vessel  be  inverted,  on  placing  a  lighted  taper 
therein,  gradually  the  flame  diminishes,  and  is  speedily 
extinguished — this  being  due  to  the  oxygen  of  the  en- 
closed air  combining  during  combustion  with  a  portion  of 
the  material  forming  the  taper,  which  assumes  the  gaseous 
state,  so  producing  a  poisonous  compound  gas  (called  car- 
bonic acid) ,  which  suffocates  the  flame.  But  if,  previous 
to  extinction,  a  stream  of  oxygen  gas  were  to  be  injected 
into  the  inverted  vessel,  the  flame  would  revive,  and  burn 
with  an  intensity  proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  that  gas 
supplied. 

Qr  if  a  number  of  persons  be  assembled  together  in  a 
confined  place  where  the  supply  of  fresh  air  is  limited,  they, 
by  the  process  of  respiration,  in  a  manner  analogous  to 
the  action  of  the  fire,  vitiate  the  air  and  produce  the  same 
poisonous  compound  as  that,  and  when  air  is  contami- 
nated with  this,  it  is  productive  of  lassitude,  headache, 
and  sickness  to  the  persons  breathing  it.  Should  the  atmo- 
sphere inhaled  by  the  lungs  contain  only  one  per  cent,  of 
carbonic  acid,  it  is  exceedingly  unhealthy  ;  and  when  it 
contains  from  three  to  four  per  cent,  of  that,  persons 
breathing  it  would  spe'edily  die  ;  but  by  the  timely  admin- 
istration of  oxygen  gas,  or  fresh  air,  of  which  it  is  a  con- 
stituent, the  calamity  would  be  averted. 

Again,  if  a  person  were  to  descend  by  means  of  an 
ordinary  diving-bell  into  water,  without  any  communi- 
cation with  the  atmosphere,  in  a  short  time  the  small 
quantity  of  air  contained  in  the  bell  would  become  em- 
poisoned by  the  emanations  from  his  lungs,  and  death 
would  ensue  ;  but  by  resorting  to  the  science  of  chemistry, 
and  providing  himself  with  a  store  of  oxygen  gas  sufficient 
for  the  time  he  wishes  to  remain  beneath  the  water,  and 
being  further  provided  with  the  means  of  absorbing  the 


VENTILATION.  115 

carboni'c  acid  produced,  with  impunity  he  may  then  con- 
tinue submerged  for  a  considerable  time  without  fear  or 
danger. 

Thus  we  learn  that  oxygen,  or  fresh  air  which  contains 
it,  is  most  essential  to  fire  and  animal  life  ;  that  when  it 
contributes  to  the  one  or  the  other,  a  poisonous  compound 
is  evolved,  which,  when  breathed  even  in  a  limited  quantity, 
is  injurious  to  the  human  frame.  This  poisonous  com- 
pound may  be  evolved  so  as  to  be  pernicious  by  one  per- 
son or  many,  dependent  on  the  locality  and  means  of  ven- 
tilation. Or  it  may  be  produced  by  lights,  as  candles, 
lamps,  or  gas,  burning  in  an  enclosed  place.  Lastly,  by 
resorting  to  proper  means,  the  evils  arising  from  this  per- 
nicious compound  may  be  averted,  which  is  the  object  of 
proper  ventilation. 

The  enormous  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  continually 
being  produced  from  animal  life  and  fire,  is  absorbed  by 
trees  and  plants,  which  in  their  turn  give  out  the  oxygen 
thereof  in  a  pure  state,  retaining  the  carbon  for  their 
growth.  Like  all  other  gases,  carbonic  acid  is  readily 
diffused,  and,  aided  by  the  winds,  is  carried  in  all  direc- 
tions from  cities  and  towns,  where  it  is  largely  generated, 
to  supply  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Following  this  law, 
every  facility  should  be  given  in  all  buildings  to  permit 
the  vitiated  air  to  escape,  and  for  the  free  admission  of 
fresh  and  pure  air. 

There  is  another  effect  produced  from  flame  of  all  kinds  ; 
that  is  the  production  of  vapor  or  water,  caused  by  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  combining  with  the  hydrogen, 
constituting  a  portion  of  the  material  consumed  ;  and,  in 
the  act  of  combustion,  water  is  produced,  which  exists  as 
vapor  in  the  air  wherever  there  is  a  flame  ;  therefore,  in 
proportion  to  the  gaslight  so  will  be  the  amount  of  vapor 


116  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

formed.  A  similar  process  takes  place  with  animal  life  ; 
for  at  each  expiration,  vapor  intermixed  with  the  breath 
is  expelled,  which  may  be  made  evident  by  condensing  it 
on  a  cold  looking-glass  or  other  similar  object.  In  cold 
weather  this  is  very  perceptible,  when  issuing  from  the 
mouth.  There  is  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  vapor 
given  off  by  the  pores  of  the  body. 

The  presence  of  these  vapors  is  made  palpable  in 
several  ways :  firstly,  if  a  pitcher  of  iced  or  very  cold 
water  be  taken  into  a  room  which  is  apparently  quite 
dry  and  warm,  speedily  the  surface  of  the  pitcher  is  cov- 
ered with  a  thick  dew,  caused  by  the  vapor  floating  in 
the  air,  being  condensed  thereon  by  the  action  of  the  cold 
water  within.  Or  in  frosty  weather,  where  a  gaslight  is 
burning  in  an  apartment,  the  vapor  arising  therefrom 
will  be  condensed  upon  the  glass  of  the  windows,  and  be- 
come frozen. 

The  same  effect  is  witnessed  in  bed-rooms  when  a  por- 
tion of  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  occupants  is  frozen  on 
the  glass ;  and  on  a  frosty  morning,  in  passing  through 
the  streets,  by  observing  the  frost  upon  the  windows,  one 
may  indicate  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  various  rooms 
which  have  been  inhabited  during  the  night. 

We  have  therefore  in  ventilation  two  considerations — 
the  one  to  have  the  full  quantity  of  fresh  air  necessary  to 
our  health  and  comfort,  and  in  certain  places  to  avoid  • 
the  accumulation  of  vapor,  which  may  be  highly  destruc- 
tive to  many  classes  of  merchandise ;  and  although  the 
means  employed  for  the  effectual  fulfilment  of  the  first 
requirement  would  accomplish  the  second,  still  we  have 
thought  it  better  to  embrace  the  two  subjects,  as  the  lat- 
ter will  explain  many  causes  of  complaints  of  gas  con- 
sumers. 


VENTILATION.  117 

The  effect  of  the  heat  and  vapor  from  combustion  is 
frequently  very  objectionable  ;  for  instance,  a  wareroom 
or  shop,  the  lower  part  of  which  may  be  only  at  a  tem- 
perature of  from  60°  to  70°,  in  consequence  of  the  hot 
air  ascending,  and  there  being  no  means  of  its  escaping, 
the  temperature  near  the  ceiling  in  the  same  apartment 
will  probably  be  130°  or  140°.  Therefore  when  goods 
or  books  exist  in  such  localities,  and  are  subjected  to  this 
high  temperature  and  corresponding  vapor,  it  cannot  be  a 
matter  of  surprise  if  they  become  injured  or  destroyed. 
Yet  the  preventive  is  exceedingly  simple ;  but  instead 
of  being  applied,  the  defect  is  at  once  attributed  to  the 
bad  quality  of  the  gas.  For  the  proper  protection  of 
goods  when  placed  in  such  localities,  a  thorough  system 
of  ventilation  is  necessary,  so  as  to  permit  the  hot  air 
and  vapor  to  pass  off  freely  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
premises. 

"When  gaslights  are  in  enclosed  places,  as  shop  win- 
dows, good  ventilation  is  indispensable,  or  the  vapor  will 
be  condensed  upon  the  glass,  entirely  obscuring  it.  Some- 
times in  winter  this  is  found  to  be  frozen  on  shop  win- 
dows in  the  morning,  on  opening  them,  and  appears  a 
mystery.  However,  this  can  only  arise  from  a  person  or 
persons  having  slept  in  the  locality,  or  from  a  gas  or 
other  light  having  been  burned  there. 

Although  apparently  so  simple,  the  general  question 
of  ventilation  is  very  difficult  to  treat  with,  for  sometimes 
the  means  adopted  to  insure  a  good  supply  of  fresh  air 
may  answer  admirably  for  a  period ;  but  unexpectedly, 
perhaps,  from  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  sud- 
denly it  is  found  to  be  defective,  and,  to  the  great  disap- 
pointment of  the  proprietor  of  the  premises,  the  system 
has  to  be  abandoned.  Arrangements  which  may  be  per- 


118  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

fection  in  calm  or  warm  weather,  are  often  highly  objec- 
tionable in  cold  or  boisterous  weather,  when,  instead  of 
the  noxious  products  of  combustion  passing  off,  the  re- 
verse takes  place,  and  the  flame  is  caused  to  become 
smoky  and  agitated,  necessitating  a  discontinuance  of  the 
mode  of  lighting. 

For  public  buildings  of  every  denomination,  the  Sun 
Light  may  be  considered  the  most  effective  means  of 
lighting  and  ventilation,  so  far  as  regards  the  supply  of 
air  to  aliment  the  flames  ;  but  with  respect  to  the  general 
ventilation  of  such  places,  much  remains  for  the  archi- 
tect to  accomplish. 

In  warehouses,  shops,  apartments,  etc.,  where  gas  is 
much  used,  and  defective  ventilation  exists,  one  or  more 
openings  should  be  made  in  the  highest  part  of  the  local- 
ity, which  openings  may  be  regulated  by  a  valve  or 
valves,  and  these  should  be  under  control  as  desired  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  The  number  and  size  of  such 
openings  will  depend  on  the  dimensions  of  the  building, 
the  number  of  persons  generally  assembled  there,  and  the 
lights  employed.  They  may  be  led  into  a  staircase,  pas- 
sage, or  other  similar  place  where  the  noxious  products 
of  combustion  and  respiration  will  become  cooled,  and, 
being  heavier  than  the  atmospheric  air,  will  descend  and 
be  diffused.  When  ventilating  openings  communicate 
direct  with  the  open  air,  the  serious  inconveniences  of 
sudden  draughts  are  to  be  contended  against,  for  in  all 
places  there  is  a  particular  point  from  whence  the  wind 
blows,  which  at  certain  periods  causes  considerable  an- 
noyance. This,  however,  may  be  remedied  to  a  great 
extent  by  closing  the  orifice  with  a  sheet  of  pierced  zinc 
or  wire  cloth,  which  has  the  effect  of  checking  the  evil. 

In  order  to  permit  the  vitiated  air  to  issue  with  every 


VENTILATION.*  119 

facility,  openings  should  exist  in  the  lowest  part  of  the 
apartment  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air  ;  and  if  carefully 
distributed  in  a  series  of  small  orifices,  at  the  back  of,  or 
in,  the  skirting  boards,  then  no  draught  will  be  percep- 
tible. If  the  supply  of  fresh  air  be  regulated  by  a  valve 
similar  to  that  mentioned  for  the  egress  of  the  vitiated 
air,  this  system  of  ventilation  will  then  be  found  admirably 
adapted  for  either  winter  or  summer.  The  error  is  often 
committed  to  leave  a  large  opening  in  the  roof  or  ceiling 
for  the  emission  of  the  impure  air,  without  making  any 
provision  in  the  lower  part  for  the  supply  of  fresh  air. 
Under  such  circumstances,  proper  ventilation  is  impossible. 

In  many  modern-built  first  and  second-rate  houses,  the 
architect  makes  provision  for  ventilation  by  constructing 
main  air  flues,  which  pass  from  the  bottom  to  the  roof, 
but  terminate  inside,  so  as  not  to  receive  the  direct  action 
of  the  various  winds.  Into  this  are  conducted  the  branch 
air  flues,  which  receive  the  vitiated  and  heated  air  from  the 
various  apartments,  and  so  carry  it  away.  This  system 
is  highly  recommended,  and  it  is  desirable  that  it  should 
become  more  general. 

There  are  several  systems  of  ventilating  gasaliers,  more 
or  less  effective  ;  in  these,  the  air  for  supplying  the  flames 
is  conducted  by  a  tube  from  the  exterior,  another  tube 
conveying  away  the  noxious  products,  so  that  the  air  in  the 
apartment  is  not  influenced  by  the  burning  gas.  When 
this  class  of  gasalier  is  employed,  both  tubes  should  com- 
municate with  some  enclosed  place,  otherwise  efficiency 
cannot  be  expected,  for  at  one  period  or  another,  the  in- 
conveniences of  down  draught,  smoky  flames,  and  broken 
glasses  will  be  experienced,  and  causing  the  very  opposite 
effect  to  that  desired. 

'Other  ventilating  gasaliers  are  constructed  in  such  a 


120  THE  QAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

manner  that  the  air  to  supply  the  flame  is  taken  from  the 
apartment  where  situated,  and  the  products  of  combustion 
carried  away  as  just  mentioned.  This  has  the  great 
recommendation  of  effectually  ventilating  the  locality 
where  placed,  and  is  to  be  recommended. 

Dr.  Frankland's  hot-air  burner,  referred  to  in  a  former 
chapter,  is  calculated  to  contribute  largely  to  a  more  per- 
fect system  of  ventilation  where  gaslights  are  in  use  ;  for, 
as  shown,  the  saving  in  gas  thereby  is  equal  to  thirty-three 
per  cent. ;  in  consequence,  the  vitiated  air  would  be  de- 
creased in  the  same  proportion. 

In  many  places,  ventilation  may  be  promoted  by  em- 
ploying panes  of  perforated  glass  for  the  windows,  or  by 
some  of  the  various  kinds  of  ventilators  now  before  the 
public,  taking  advantage,  where  practicable,  of  the  means 
of  obtaining  a  fresh  supply  of  air  from  the  lower  and 
cooler  part  of  a  building. 

"The  following  is  one  of  the  most  simple  and  effective 
modes  of  ventilation,  easily  applied,  and  capable  of  being 
put  in  operation  at  a  very  few  minutes'  notice,  in  a  house 
of  almost  any  form  of  construction,  from  a  palace  to  a 
cottage.  Its  cost  is  next  to  nothing,  and  is  applicable  to 
all  kinds  of  weather,  winter  as  well  as  summer,  as  all 
draught  is  avoided,  —  rainy  weather  as  well  as  dry  ;  — 
because,  with  this  arrangement,  the  rain  cannot  penetrate. 

"Provide  a  piece  of  wood  about  an  inch  thick,  three  to 
six  inches  wide,  and  just  as  long  as  the  width  of  the 
window-casing  of  the  room  to  be  ventilated.  Raise  the 
lower  sash  of  the  window,  lay  the  strip  of  wood  on  the 
bottom  of  the  window-casing — its  edge  resting  on  this  — 
and  the  ends  in  the  grooves  in  which  the  lower  sash  slides  ; 
close  the  sash  down  snugly  on  the  slip  of  wood,  and  you 
will  find  an  opening  is  left  between  the  bars  of  the  upper 


VENTILATION. 


121 


and  lower  sashes  of  the  window,  where  they  meet  in  the 
centre,  as  shown  in  the  engraving  (Fig.  18).  The  air 
passes  through  this  opening  in  an  upward  current  towards 
the  ceiling,  or  else  will  pass  outward  in  a  downward  cur- 
rent from  the  top  of  the  room,  so  that  all  danger  of  a 


Mg.  18. 

A,  slip  of  wood,  its  edge  resting  on  c,  bottom  of  the  window  casing.  B, 
-  lower  sash  raised,  but  closed  down  on  A.  D,  opening  between  the  sashes 
through  which  the  current  of  air  passes  in  direction  indicated  by  arrows. 


122 


draught  is  avoided.  One  or  more  windows  fitted  in  this 
manner  on  each  side  of  a  room  (or  even  on  the  same 
side  if  windows  exist  on  but  one  side),  secures  perfect 
ventilation  without  discomfort.  On  account  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  temperature,  and  equilibrium  of  the  air  in  the 
room  and  that  outside,  an  outward  and  inward  current 
will  be  established,  a  stream  of  fresh  air  passing  upward 
in  the  direction  of  the  opening  between  the  sashes  of  the 
window  toward  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  and  another 
current  passing  downwards  from  the  top  of  the  room 
through  the  window  on  the  other  side,  thus  maintaining 
a  nearly  perfect  system  of  ventilation,  and  one  that  can 
be  put  in  operation  more  readily  than  any  other  plan 
known.  The  direction  of  the  current  is  such,  that  the 
foul  air  is  removed  from  that  portion  of  the  room  where 
it  is  apt  to  be  most  abundant. 

"The  slips  of  wood  can  be  painted  of  the  color  of 
the  window,  so  that  they  will  not  be  readily  noticed,  or 
they  can  be  made  of  ornamental  woods. 

"If  the  slip  of  wood  has  been  properly  fitted  to  the 
grooves,  no  draught  whatever  will  be  felt  at  the  bottom 
of  the  window." 

The  importance  of  a  good  system  of  ventilation  cannot 
be  overrated ;  but  frequently  people,  by  use,  become  habit- 
uated to  breathe  impure  air.  In  some  workrooms  it  is 
often  insupportably  injurious  to  those  who  enter  casually, 
yet  the  occupants  experience  no  inconvenience  from  it  ai 
the  time,  but  slowly  it  does  its  baneful  work,  and  many- 
cases  of  consumption  have  their  origin  from  this. 

Badly-ventilated  workrooms  and  workshops  are  detri- 
mental in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  for  those  persons 
who  inhabit  them  have  considerably  less  energy  than  they 
would  possess  were  proper  ventilation  established,  and 


VENTILATION.  %  123 

in  consequence  less  work  is  done.  Therefore  it  is  directly 
the  interest  of  employers  to  consider  well  this  important 
question. 

In  public  places  of  amusement,  the  means  of  ventila- 
tion are  too  frequently  neglected  ;  the  natural  consequences 
are,  that  in  summer  time,  on  this  account  alone,  they  are 
less  patronized,  for  who  can  possibly  consider  it  amuse- 
ment to  sit  in  a  state  of  perspiration,  and  gasping  for 
breath,  as  is  often  the  case  ;  and  sacrificing  the  comforts 
of  a  moderate  temperature,  a  fresh  and  healthy  atmo- 
sphere, which  can  be  obtained  by  leaving  the  building  ? 

A  good  system  of  ventilation  may  be  applied  in  such 
places  by  means  of  a  fan,  or  vane,  set  in  action  by  mo- 
tive power  or  manual  labor,  with  a  judicious  disposition 
of  flues  to  conduct  the  supply  of  air  to  those  parts  of  the 
edifice  wherever  requisite. 

It  often  happens,  during  public  or  private  assemblies, 
that  the  atmosphere  is  rendered  so  insupportable  by  the 
persons  and  the  lights,  that  weariness  and  headache  are 
the  consequences  —  thus  marring  the  pleasures  of  the 
evening,  and  carrying  its  injurious  effects  with  it  the  fol- 
lowing day.  Fresh  air  costs  nothing  ;  therefore  bad  ven- 
tilation should  be  always  avoided,  for  assuredly  when  this 
exists,  its  pernicious  effects  will  be  made  manifest  sooner 
or  later,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  those  persons  who 
are  subjected  to  its  influence. 

One  mode  of  effecting  ventilation  is  to  place  a  simple 
catch-tube  or  funnel  over  the  gas,  and  thus  to  carry  away 
the  products  of  combustion  into  a  neighboring  chimney, 
or  to  the  outside  of  the  house.  When  this  plan  is  not 
available,  a  less  perfect  mode  of  ventilation  may  be 
adopted,  by  boring  a  number  of  holes  through  the  ceiling 
immediately  over  the  chandelier  or  burner.  The  holes 


124  TJIE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

should  be  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  they  should 
communicate  with  the  space  above  the  ceiling.  The  holes 
in  the  ceiling  may  be  hidden  from  view  by  means  of  a 
perforated  or  open  rosette. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


CHEMISTRY   OF    GAS-LIGHTING. 

A  BEAUTIFUL  action  takes  place  in  the  combustion  of 
an  ordinary  lamp  or  candle,  in  which  the  wick  surrounded 
by  flame  represents  a  series  of  capillary  tubes,  to  convey 
the  melted  matter  in  the  form  of  gas  into  flame.  This 
action  will  be  very  apparent  to  any  one  who  will  watch 
the  process  of  combustion  in  an  ordinary  wax  or  tallow 
candle.  First,  he  will  perceive  a  cup  of  melted  matter 
around  the  wick,  in  which  a  great  number  of  small  glob- 
ules are  seen  constantly  in  progress  toward  the  wick. 
Many  of  these  globules  are  also  seen  standing  on  the 
wick,  studding  it  all  over  like  little  sparkling  diamonds. 
Let  us  consider  what  these  globules  contain.  They  are 
filled  with  the  inflammable  gas  produced  by  the  heat  ap- 
plied to  the  melted  wax  or  tallow  ;  but  fortunately  for  the 
success  of  this  method  of  burning,  these  globules  do  not 
break  and  set  free  the  gas  until  they  come  into  close  con- 
tact with  the  flame,  when  the  heat  becomes  so  great,  that 
the  expansion  of  the  gas  causes  each  little  globule  to  break, 
and  add  its  contents  to  the  already  burning  flame.  It  is 
obvious  if  the  gas  were  to  be  actually  formed  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  small  cup  of  melted  fluid  already  spoken  of, 
the  surface  being  usually  half  an  inch  below  the  nearest 
part  of  the  flame,  that  the  gas  would  immediately  diffuse 
itself  through  the  air,  and  combustion  could  not  proceed. 

(125) 


126  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

It  is  only  through  the  property  which  the  gas  possesses 
of  taking  an  intermediate  form,  and  not  finally  assuming 
its  gaseous  condition  till  it  reaches  the  flame,  that  the  ef- 
fect of  continued  combustion  is  preserved. 

All  organic  and  inorganic  bodies  constituting  every- 
thing accessible  to  man,  consist  of,  or  are  composed  of, 
about  sixty-four  simple  substances  called  elements,  which 
are  so  named  because  they  cannot  by  any  known  means 
be  decomposed  ;  that  is,  resolved  into  simpler  kinds  of  mat- 
ter. These  elements  combine  with  each  other  in  certain 
relative  proportions,  and  form  substances  called  com- 
pounds. 

Of  the  elements,  those  which  are  of  immediate  interest 
in  connection  with  gas,  there  are  only  five  :  viz.,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  and  sulphur,  which  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  on  account  of  their  vast  abundance, 
because  one  or  more  of  these  exist  in  almost  every  sub- 
stance or  compound  in  nature,  and  they  all  influence  the 
manufacture  or  distribution  of  coal-gas. 

The  decomposition  of  coal  by  heat,  as  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  coal-gas,  is  entirely  a  chemical  operation.  Coal 
contains  all  the  five  elements  named  ;  and  the  result  of  the 
decomposition  is,  that  the  greatest  portion  of  the  hydrogen 
and  the  volatile  carbon  are  expelled  as  gas  ;  a  portion  of 
the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  form  water  ;  the  nitrogen,  with 
a  portion  of  hydrogen,  constitutes  ammonia ;  a  portion 
of  the  sulphur  and  hydrogen  comprise  the  impurity,  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  Another  portion  of  sulphur  unites 
with  carbon,  and  produces  the  troublesome  impurity  called 
bisulphide  of  carbon.  The  tar  is  a  compound  of  several 
of  these  elements  ;  and  the  coke  left  in  the  retort  is  fixed 
carbon,  intermixed  with  earthy  substances  and  a  minute 
portion  of  sulphur. 


CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS-LIGHTING.  127 

Gases  are  permanently  elastic  fluids  —  vapor  or  steam 
convey  to  us  the  idea  of  the  bulk  of  gas.  But  this,  by 
the  diminution  of  temperature,  condenses  and  becomes 
liquid  ;  whereas  gases,  under  all  ordinary  circumstances, 
are  permanent  in  their  state.  Smoke  issuing  from  a  chim- 
ney or  elsewhere,  is  a  mixture  of  several  gases  combined 
with  vapor  and  small  solid  particles  of  carbon,  called 
soot. 

Oxygen.  —  This  is  by  far  the  most  abundant  element  in 
nature,  and  in  its  gaseous  state  forms  more  than  one- 
fifth  part  of  the  atmosphere  by  which  our  earth  is  sur- 
rounded. As  a  liquid,  in  union  with  hydrogen,  it  consti- 
tutes by  weight  eight-ninths  of  all  water  ;  as  a  solid,  it  is 
a  portion  of  innumerable  organic  and  inorganic  bodies, 
and  is  estimated  to  form  about  one-third  of  the  mineral 
crust  of  our  globe. 

Oxygen,  when  free,  that  is,  when  uncombined  with  any 
other  elements,  exists  only  as  a  gas  (all  attempts  to  re- 
duce it  to  a  fluid  having  failed)  ;  and  this  occurs  either 
when  it  is  emitted  by  the  leaves  of  plants,  etc.,  or  when 
by  the  agency  of  man  it  is  separated  from  other  elements 
with  which  nature  has  caused  it  to  combine,  and  form 
certain  'compounds  or  substances.  This  element  is  the 
support  of  all  animal  life  and  combustion,  and  possesses 
very  peculiar  properties  ;  for  instance,  a  body  which  burns 
in  air  when  it  is  immersed  in  oxygen  gas,  burns  with 
vastly  increased  splendor  ;  and  the  wick  of  a  recently  ex- 
tinguished candle,  having  the  least  part  red-hot,  when  in- 
serted into  a  jar  of  this  gas,  is  immediately  relighted ; 
and  a  piece  of  charcoal  with  the  smallest  point  ignited, 
when  so  treated,  burns  with  great  brilliancy. 

Oxygen  gas  is  inodorous,  colorless,  and  rather  heavier 
than  air,  and  it  may  be  termed  the  aerial  food  of  animal 


128  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

life ;  for  at  each  respiration  a  portion  of  it  intermixed 
with  nitrogen  is  received  into  the  lungs,  acts  on  the  blood, 
and  is  afterwards  ejected  as  a  poisonous  compound,  car- 
bonic acid  gas. 

Chlorine.  —  This  gas  is  of  a  yellowish  green  color,  its 
odor  very  suffocating  ;  and,  if  breathed,  it  is  extremely  in- 
jurious to  the  lungs.  It  destroys  all  vegetable  colors,  and 
is  much  used  in  bleaching. 

Hydrogen.  —  This  element  is  also  very  abundant,  and 
does  not  exist  free  or  uncombined  in  nature.  It  is  a 
constituent  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  form- 
ing, by  weight,  one-ninth  part  of  water,  and  is  a  portion 
of  most  combustible  bodies.  Hydrogen  gas  is  colorless 
and  tasteless,  and  when  quite  pure  is  without  odor  ;  it  is 
inflammable  when  issuing  from  an  orifice  and  intermix- 
ing with  the  atmosphere ;  burning  with  a  faint  violet 
color,  giving  great  heat,  but  very  little  light. 

This  gas  is  the  lightest  substance  in  nature,  being  a 
little  more  than  one-fifteenth  part  of  the  weight  of  air. 
It  is  an  invariable  component  of  coal  gas,  both  in  a  free 
state  and  in  combination  with  carbon,  constituting  certain 
hydro-carbons,  such  as  light  carburetted  hydrogen  (or 
marsh  gas),  olefiant  gas,  etc. 

Hydrogen,  for  perfect  combustion,  requires  eight  times 
its  weight,  or  half  its  volume  of  oxygen,  the  result  of  the 
combustion  being  water ;  and  in  every  case  wherever 
artificial  light  is  obtained  by  burning  oil,  tallow,  gas,  etc., 
this  production  of  water  is  continually  taking  place,  aris- 
ing from  the  hydrogen  intermixed  with  the  material  being 
consumed  uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere. 

Nitrogen.  —  This  element  is  so  called  from  its  being 
the  basis  of  nitric  acid,  and  nitre,  and  is  sometimes  named 
azote,  from  its  incapability-of  supporting  life. 


CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS-LIGHTING.  129 

Nitrogen  constitutes  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  air  we 
breathe,  and  serves  to  temper  the  effects  of  the  oxygen, 
which,  if  alone,  or  even  when  in  moderate  excess  of  the 
proportions  stated,  would  be  too  energetic.  It  is  also  a 
component  of  all  animal  tissues,  muscles,  etc. 

Nitrogen  gas  is  slightly  lighter  than  air :  it  has  neither 
color,  taste,  nor  smell ;  it  supports  neither  combustion 
nor  respiration ;  and  is  characterized  by  its  negative 
properties,  rather  than  by  possessing  any  inherent  poison- 
ous qualities,  such  as  are  peculiar  to  carbonic  oxide,  or 
carbonic  acid.  Nitrogen  is  of  interest  to  the  gas  man- 
ufacturer on  account  of  its  influence  on  the  combustion 
of  gas ;  also  because  it  is  one  of  the  components  of  the 
alkali  ammonia,  which  is  always  generated  during  the 
distillation  of  coal,  in  making  coal  gas. 

Carbon.  —  This  is  likewise  one  of  the  most  abundant 
elements,  and  is  extensively  distributed  in  nature  as  a 
constituent  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  bodies.  It  exists 
in  the  mineral  kingdom  in  various  forms — very  largely 
in  the  state  of  coal.  It  also  enters  into  the  composition 
of  some  earthy  bodies  ;  for,  united  with  lime,  it  forms 
marble,  chalk,  and  limestone.  The  diamond,  although 
unlike  any  of  the  substances  named,  is  pure  carbon,  and 
is  about  three  and  a  half  times  heavier  than  water.  The 
combustion  of  carbon  in  air  or  oxygen,  produces  light 
more  or  less  brilliant,  according  to  the  degree  of  heat  to 
which  it  is  raised. 

Sulphur. — This  exists  in  large  quantities  in  nature,  form- 
ing part  of  the  ores  of  copper,  lead,  mercury,  silver,  and 
other  metals.  It  also  issues  from  volcanoes,  in  the  form 
of  gases,  in  great  abundance,  and  in  its  solid  state  is  well 
known  under  the  name  of  brimstone.  It  exists  in  coal 
in  the  bright  metallic  laminae  which  intersect  it,  these 
9 


130  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

being  chiefly  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  iron.  Coke, 
even  after  having  been  submitted  to  a  very  protracted 
and  high  heat,  still  contains  a  portion  of  sulphur,  giving 
rise  to  the  noxious  odor  occasioned  by  burning  it  in  con- 
fined places.  A  highly  volatile  compound  of  sulphur  and 
carbon  is  produced  in  the  distillation  of  coal  by  the  com- 
bination of  a  certain  amount  of  sulphur  with  carbon,  viz. : 
the  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

The  peculiar  disagreeable  odors  of  many  of  .the  com- 
pounds of  sulphur  are  familiar  to  all,  and  are  the  most 
troublesome  of  all  the  impurities  of  coal  gas,  the  econom- 
ical removal  of  which  has  for  several  years  defied  the 
chemist's  skill. 

Composition  of  Coal  Gas.  —  Coal  gas,  when  purified,  is 
composed  chiefly  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  and  consists 
principally  of  a  definite  compound,  called  light  carburetted 
hydrogen,  or  marsh  gas,  combined  with  a  variable  mix- 
ture of  vapors  or  gases,  consisting  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen, called  heavy  hydrocarbons,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  known  as  olefiant  gas  ;  carbonic  oxide  is  also 
one  of  its  constituents.  The  impurities  are  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  ammonia,  nitrogen,  carbonic  acid,  and  bisul- 
phide of  carbon. 

Light  Carburetted  Hydrogen,  or  marsh  gas,  is  a  com- 
pound of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
atom  of  the  former  to  four  atoms  of  the  latter.  It  is  this 
compound  which  constitutes  the  inflammable  fire-damp 
of  coal  mines,  where  it  is  generated  spontaneously ;  it 
proceeds  abundantly  from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
substances,  and  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  distillation 
of  coal. 

This  gas  is  colorless,  nearly  inodorous,  and  does  not 


CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS-LIGHTING.  131 

affect  vegetable  colors,  and  like  hydrogen,  is  permanently 
gaseous  under  intense  cold  or  pressure. 

Pure  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  may  be  respired  with 
safety.  The  unpleasant  smell  of  common  coal  gas  is  due 
to  impurities. 

Olefiant  Gas,  or  oil-making  gas,  is  so  named  from  its 
forming  an  oil  when  combined  with  chlorine  or  bromine. 
It  consists  of  two  atoms  of  carbon  united  to  four  atoms 
of  hydrogen.  Olefiant  gas  containing  double  as  much 
carbon  as  the  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  burns  with 
much  greater  brilliancy,  and  gives  out  a  very  superior 
light. 

There  are  other  heavy  hydrocarbons  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  eoal  gas,  having  the  same  nature  as 
olefiant  gas,  known  as  propylene,  butylene,  etc. 

Hydrocarbons.  —  Coal  gas,  according  to  the  description 
of  coal  from  which  it  is  produced,  and  the  mode  of  distil- 
lation, contains  from  three  to  thirty  per  cent.,  by  volume, 
of  vapor  or  gaseous  matter  (carbon  and  hydrogen),  to 
which  the  general  name  of  hydrocarbons  is  applied,  and 
the  illuminating  power  of  gas  is  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  hydrocarbon  in  combination  therewith. 

If  chlorine,  bromine,  or  dry  sulphuric  acid  be  added 
to  a  sample  of  coal  gas,  or  if  the  gas  be  subjected  to  ex- 
cessive pressure  or  extreme  cold,  the  heavy  hydrocarbons 
are  deposited  in  the  form  of  oil,  the  volume  of  gas  being 
sensibly  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  con- 
densed. 

Carbonic  Oxide,  or  the  protoxide  of  carbon,  consists 
of  one  atom  of  carbon  and  one  of  oxygen.  Carbonic 
oxide  is  prepared  in  the  laboratory  by  passing  carbonic 
acid  over  red-hot  charcoal  or  metallic  iron,  by  which 
half  its  oxygen  is  removed,  and  becomes  converted  into 


132  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

carbonic  oxide.  This  change  also  explains  the  mode  of 
its  formation  in  the  process  of*  distilling  coal  for  gas- 
making  purposes.  Carbonic  oxide  contains  half  its  vol- 
ume of  oxygen,  is  a  combustible  gas,  and  burns  with  a 
beautiful  blue  flame,  the  product  of  combustion  being 
carbonic  acid.  This  gas  is  extremely  poisonous  —  even 
worse  than  carbonic  acid — is  colorless,  and  possesses  very 
little  odor. 

This  compound  exists  more  or  less  in  coalvgas,  but  sel- 
dom exceeding  ten  per  cent,  by  volume,  and  generally 
much  less.  It  requires  one  volume  of  oxygen  for  com- 
bustion, being  then  converted  into  carbonic  acid.  Car- 
bonic oxide  contributes  to  the  heat  of  the  flame,  but  only 
indirectly  to  the  light.  It  is  not  considered  an  impurity 
in  coal  gas. 

IMPURITIES    OF   GOAL   CAS. 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  —  (hydro-sulphuric  acid)  is  a 
compound  which  consists  by  weight  of  one  part  of  hy- 
drogen gas  and  sixteen  parts  of  sulphur  vapor.  By 
measure  it  contains  two  volumes  of  hydrogen,  combined 
with  one  volume  of  the  vapor  of  sulphur,  the  two  being 
condensed  into  two  volumes. 

This  is  a  colorless  gas,  possessing  acid  properties,  red- 
dening litmus  paper,  and  has  a  most  offensive  odor,  sim- 
ilar to  putrid  eggs,  which  indeed  contain  it ;  it  is  very 
poisonous,  and  if  breathed  into  the  lungs  is  injurious  to 
life,  occasioning  suffocating  vapors  like  those  arising 
from  the  burning  of  brimstone ;  it  tarnishes  metals, 
changes  the  color  of  most  kinds  of  paint  and  furniture 
hangings  ;  and  when  coal  gas  possessing  this  impurity  is 
burned,  the  sulphur  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere, forming  sulphurous  acid.  Therefore  with  the 


CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS-LIGHTING.  133 

various  evils  enumerated,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  gas  should  be  entirely  free  from  it,  and  any  establish- 
ment neglecting  this  does  a  serious  injury  to  its  business, 
as  well  as  to  the  comforts  and  health  of  gas  consumers. 

This  gas  is  also  frequently  found  in  low  places  which 
have  been  for  a  time  the  receptacles  of  animal  and  veg- 
etable matter,  and  afterwards  filled  with  earth  or  gravel 
to  a  higher  level,  for  the  purposes  of  commerce  or  resi- 
dence. Take  for  example  the  Back  Bay  lands  of  Boston, 
where,  although  the  filling  has  been  most  thorough  and 
complete,  this  gas  is  sometimes  complained  of  as  tarnish- 
ing the  silver  and  other  metals. 

Carbonic  Acid  is  another  well-known  oxide  of  carbon. 
This  gas  is  readily  procured  by  decomposing  any  of  the 
earthy  carbonates,  as  chalk  or  limestone,  with  a  stronger 
acid,  which,  forming  a  new  combination  with  the  earthy 
base,  sets  free  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  carbonate. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  is  without  color,  and  though  posess- 
ing  an  agreeable  pungent  taste  and  odor,  cannot  be 
breathed  for  a  moment  with  impunity,  as  it  rapidly  pro- 
duces the  effect  of  suffocation,  insensibility,  and  death. 
This  gas  is  familiar,  as  the  fatal  choke-damp  of  mines, 
as  the  fixed  air  in  champagne,  bottled  beer,  soda-water, 
etc. ;  and  as  the  heavy  gas  which  floats  over  the  large 
vats  in  breweries  while  the  beer  is  undergoing  the  pro- 
cess of  fermentation.  It  is  also  produced  wherever  there 
is  combustion,  and  should  always  be  carried  off  by  proper 
ventilation. 

Not  only  is  this  gas  entirely  uninflammable,  but  it  in- 
stantly extinguishes  flame  even  diluted  with  three  times 
its  volume  of  air.  The  carbonic  acid  gas,  owing  to  its 
great  affinity  for  lime,  is  readily  separated  either  by 
being  exposed  to  the  absorption  of  hydrate  of  lime,  or 


134  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

that  of  lime  diffused  through  water,  as  in  wet  lime  puri- 
fiers. It  is  extremely  injurious  in  gas  intended  for 
illuminating  purposes,  as  it  tends  directly  to  destroy  com- 
bustion. 

Ammonia  is  produced  during  the  distillation  of  coal  by 
the  union  of  hydrogen  with  the  azote  or  nitrogen  which 
is  contained  in  coal,  as  in  all  other  organic  substances. 
In  forming  ammonia  one  atom  of  nitrogen  unites  with 
three  atoms  of  hydrogen,  the  proportions  by  weight  being 
82.41  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  17.59  per  cent  of  hydro- 
gen. Ammonia  is  produced  abundantly  in  nature  from 
the  decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances ; 
the  gas  is  colorless  and  very  pungent,  acting  strongly  on 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose,  eyes,  and  throat.  Am- 
monia in  small  quantities  is  not  injurious  to  health,  but 
it  acts  on  some  of  the  metals,  as  brass  and  copper  of  the 
fittings  and  meters,  and  is  so  far  an  impurity.  Against 
this  it  converts  any  sulphuric  acid  formed  during  combus- 
tion into  sulphate  of  ammonia ;  therefore  in  this  respect 
it  is  beneficial,  and  must  be  considered  so  until  means 
are  devised  of  freeing  gas  from  all  its  sulphur  compounds. 
A  very  small  quantity  intermixed  with  the  gas  is  also 
considered  essential, 'to  prevent  the  deposition  of  naphtha- 
line in  the  pipes. 

Ammonia  is  a  "gaseous  body,  and  that  which  is  usually 
called  so  in  the  liquid  state  is  ammoniacal  gas  intermixed 
with  water,  which  takes  up  or  absorbs  about  seven  hun- 
dred times  its  own  volume  of  that  of  gas. 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon.  —  This  impurity  in  coal  gas  un- 
til recently  attracted  very  little  attention,  but  it  is  now 
found  to  be  most  objectionable,  on  account  of  its  very 
disagreeable  odor,  its  injurious  effects,  and  the  difficulty 
of  removing  it. 


CHEMISTRY   OF   GAS-LIGHTING.  136 

This  gas  is  a  compound  of  one  equivalent  of  carbon 
and  two  equivalents  of  sulphur,  or  by  weight  carbon  6, 
sulphur  32.  It  forms  whenever  sulphur  comes  into  con- 
tact with  red-hot  charcoal  or  coke. 

Cyanogen.  —  The  property  of  nitrogen  to  unite  with 
carbon  and  form  cyanogen  has  been  much  studied.  Cy- 
anogen is  an  inflammable  gas,  burning  with  a  beautiful 
purple  or  peach-blossom  colored  flame,  generating  car- 
bonic acid,  and  setting  nitrogen  free.  It  contains  one 
equivalent  of  carbon  and  one  of  nitrogen,  its  atomic 
weight  being  26.  This  compound  is  not  generally 
classed  amongst  the  impurities  of  coal  gas,  but  as  some 
chemists  of  ability  have  decided  it  to  be  an  impurity,  we 
place  it  here  along  with  the  others. 


136  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 

Mode  of  burning  Gas.  — When  coal  gas  is  ignited  as  it 
issues  from  a  burner,  or  orifice,  its  hydrogen  is  consumed 
at  the  lower  part,  producing  the  blue  flame  characteristic 
of  it,  and  the  carbon  being  sufficiently  heated  is  liberated 
in  a  solid  state  at  the  upper  part  of  the  flame,  if  properly 
consumed,  where  it  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere, again  therewith  resuming  the  state  of  gas  as 
carbonic  acid ;  and  according  to  the  degree  of  heat  at- 
tained by  the  innumerable  particles  of  carbon,  so  will  be 
the  amount  of  light  emitted  by  the  gas. 

Whenever  the  flame  of  gas  is  unduly  cooled,  or  when 
the  gas  is  intermixed  with  a  portion  of  atmospheric  air, 
or  when  it  issues  from  the  burners  under  great  pressure, 
the  light  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  is  very  mate- 
rially reduced  ;  and  when  either  of  these  contingencies  is 
carried  to  an  extreme,  no  material  light  is  obtained  from 
gas. 

Atmospheric  Air  mixed  with  Gas.  —  According  to  Dr. 
Letheby,  the  following  are  the  proportion's  of  light  given 
by  different  quantities  of  air  being  intermixed  with  gas, 
supposing  the  light  from  gas  unmixed  with  air  to  be 
100:— 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  137 

Light. 

2  per  cent,  of  air  in  gas  ...  90 

5  "  "  ...  70 

7  "  "  ...  52 

10  "  "  ...  34 

20  "  "  ...  12 

40  "  "...  1 

50  "  "  ...  0 

The  pernicious  effect  of  an  admixture  of  air  with  gas  is 
thus  fully  demonstrated,  and  requires  the  utmost  atten- 
tion to  avoid  it,  either  in  the  production,  transmission,  or 
consumption  of  gas. 

The  Chimneys  generally  produce  too  strong  a  current 
of  air  for  the  purpose  of  light ;  and  much  of  the  illumi- 
nating power  of  the  gas  is  thereby  destroyed,  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  heat  is  produced  instead  of  light,  — 
the  heat  being  produced  by  the  combustion  of  an  extra 
quantity  of  oxygen  derived  from  the  air.  It  is  on  this 
principle  that  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe  is  found  to 
produce  intense  heat.  Hence,  we  are  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  most  light  and  least  heat  is  produced  when  the 
gas  is  not  exposed  to  too  great  a  current  of  external  air, 
and  that  most  heat  and  least  light  is  given  by  saturating 
the  gas  with  external  air  ;  sufficient  air,  however,  must  be 
admitted  to  all  burners,  or  the  combustion  will  be  imper- 
fect, the  color  of  the  light  will  be  bad,  and  smoke  will  be 
produced.  Henee,  to  prevent  smoke,  the  air  admitted  to 
the  burners  must  be  adjusted  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  burner  and  circumstances  affecting  it. 

Flickering.  —  This  is  principally  caused  by  insufficient 
pressure  of  gas,  and  it  is  shown  mostly  in  the  horizontal 
burners  now  most  improperly  being  much  used,  as  they 
require  greater  pressure  than  other  burners  in  the  same 
establishment,  and  give  much  less  light. 


138  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE.  . 

Pressure.  —  That  the  light  given  from  gas  is  influenced 
according  to  the  pressure  with  which  it  is  emitted  from 
the  burners,  may  be  illustrated  in  the  following  manner  : 
Take  an  argand  burner  having  fifteen  holes  of  such  di- 
mensions as  to  permit  five  feet  per  hour  to  issue,  with  a 
pressure  of  about  one-tenth  inch,  when  with  ordinary 
gas  we  could  obtain  a  light  equal  to  about  twelve  can- 
dles. Now,  if  we  reserve  the  same  form  and  size  of 
burner  in  every  respect,  but  diminish  the  size  of  the 
holes  so  that  a  pressure  of  five-tenths  is  necessary 
to  expel  the  five  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  then  the  light 
will  only  be  equal  to  five  and  a  half  candles ;  and  if 
we  further  diminish  the  size  of  the  holes  so  that  forty- 
tenths  pressure  will  be  required  to  expel  the  five  feet, 
then  that  quantity  of  gas  produces  a  blue  flame,  but  no 
material  light.  All  descriptions  of  burners  are  subject 
to  this  variation  under  like  conditions  ;  and  it  is  a  most 
important  consideration  to  all  connected  with  gas  lighting. 

Luminosity  of  Gas.  —  The  variation  in  the  luminosity 
of  different  kinds  of  gas  is  due  to  the  quantity  of  carbon 
they  relatively  contain,  which  carbon  separates  at  the 
moment  of  ignition  from  the  hydrogen,  in  very  minute, 
solid  particles,  and  by  intermixing  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere,  assumes  a  state  of  incandescence  (a  state  of 
white  heat)  ;  and,  according  to  the  number  of  these  solid 
particles  of  carbon  in  gas,  so  is  the  amount  of  light  to  be 
derived  from  it.  But  it  is  essential  for  the  carbon  to  at- 
tain the  necessary  degree  of  heat  to  combine  with  its 
equivalent  of  oxygen.  For  the  perfect  combustion  of 
gas,  the  proper  supply  of  atmospheric .  air  requires  the 
greatest  attention.  An  excess  of  atmospheric  air  with 
the  flame  should  be  avoided  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  139 

other  a  sufficiency  should  be  insured  to  combine  with  the 
carbon  of  the  gas. 

Burners.  —  All  burners  require  to  be  made  especially 
for  the  quality  of  gas  they  are  designed  to  consume.  All 
the  burners  in  a  house  should  be  of  the  same  sort,  or,  if 
of  different  sorts,  they  should  each  consume  the  proper 
quantity  of  gas  under  the  same  degree  of  pressure;  Vfath 
regard  to  the  size  of  burners,  the  first  fact  to  be  observed 
is,  that  a  greater  amount  of  light  is  produced  from  a 
larger  burner  under  a  low  pressure,  than  from  a  small  one 
under  a  high  pressure,  each  consuming  equal  quantities 
of  gas  in  a  given  time.  Again,  a  greater  amount  of  light 
is  produced  from  a  large  burner  than  from  two  small  ones 
consuming  the  same  quantity  as  the  one  large  one.  Every 
size  burner  requires  a  definite  amount  of  gas  to  produce 
the  largest  proportion  of  light :  light  is  as  much  sacrificed 
by  using  too  little  gas,  as  by  using  too  much.  The  com- 
plaints about  bad  gas  are  often  without  foundation  ;  the 
fault  being  with  the  consumers.  If  they  will  not  use  the 
proper  appliances  for  obtaining  good  light — namely,  good 
burners  and  perfect  regulators  —  to  make  the  supply  of 
gas  uniform,  they  must  not  complain  of  the  gas. 

The  effect  of  Gas  on  Health.  —  It  is  gas,  and  nothing 
but  gas,  that  is  burnt ;  the  only  difference  being  that  coal 
gas  is  always  purified  before  it  is  consumed ;  whereas, 
the  extemporaneous  gas  of  a  candle  or  lamp  is  consumed 
without  being  purified  at  all,  and  hence  light  for  light,  it 
must  and  does  vitiate  the  air  of  an  apartment  much  more 
than  coal  gas.  If,  therefore,  it  be  true  that  gas  is  insa- 
lubrious, or  unhealthy,  wax,  oil,  and  tallow  must  be  de- 
cidedly more  so,  from  the  simple  fact  that  all.  the  impuri- 
ties they  evolve  pass  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  localities 
lighted ;  whereas,  the  great  bulk,  at  least,  of  those  from 


140  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

coal  gas  remain  at  the  gas  works.  The  actual  question 
for  the  public  to  consider,  is  not  whether  the  burning  of 
gas  be  injurious  to  health,  for,  in  one  shape  or  other,  gas 
must  be  burnt  to  procure  light,  but  the  point  is  — 
whether  it  is  better  to  consume  for  this  purpose  gas  of 
pure  or  impure  quality  ? 

Carbonization  of  Gas.  —  There  is  a  method  of  en- 
riching gas  by  causing  it  to.  pass,  just  previous  to  com- 
bustion, through  prepared  oils  which  are  rich  in  carbon  ; 
by  this  process  the  gas  becomes  loaded  with  the  carbon 
of  the  oil.  which  is  thereby  carried  to  the  burners,  and 
produces  a  much  larger  amount  of  light  at  a  compara- 
tively small  cost.  The  apparatus  is  called  a  Carbonizer. 
This  instrument  is  an  apparatus  attached  to  the  meter,  so 
that  the  gas,  after  leaving  the  meter,  is  made  to  pass 
through  it  previous  to  being  distributed  over  the  build- 
ing or  premises. 

The  following  are  the  essential  requisites  of  every  ap- 
paratus for  this  purpose  :  "  It  should  be  substantial,  not 
liable  to  derangement,  simple  in  construction,  having  no 
machinery  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  requiring  no 
special  skill  in  its  management ;  easily  taken  apart,  read- 
ily put  together  again,  and  uniform  in  its  action."  "  It 
should  present  the  largest  possible  surface  for  evapora- 
tion for  its  bulk,  or  cubic  contents,  fire  proof,  and  safe 
against  any  possible  accident  from  leakage,  with  facilities 
for  charging  it  readily,  without  risk  of  escape  of  fluid  or 
vapor,  and  by  the  least  possible  trouble."  "  Its  con- 
struction should  be  such  that  the  pressure  of  the  medium 
entering  the  apparatus  should  not  be  diminished  at  the 
outlet  pipe,  so  that  the  size  of  the  flame  will  always  be 
the  same,  irrespective  of  the  number  of  lights  used 
within  the  capacity  of  the  instrument."  "  It  should  be 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  141 

r, 

provided  with  a  surrounding  air-chamber,  of  a  non-con- 
ducting medium,  to  avoid  the  accumulation  of  intense 
cold  on  the  exterior  of  the  apparatus,  insuring  a  de- 
pressed temperature  to  the  vaporized  medium,  below  that 
to  be  assumed  by  the  gas  or  mixture  after  entering  the 
service  pipes."  "  The  fluid  should  leave  no  residue  or 
deposit  when  evaporated ;  and  its  cost  to,  consumers 
should  be  within  the  reach  of  persons  of  moderate 
means." 

By  the  use  of  an  apparatus  of  this  kind,  the  illuminat- 
ing power  of  gas  is  said  to  be  increased  two,  three,  and 
even  fourfold.  This  greatly  increased  illuminating  power 
imparted  to  gas  affords  a  satisfactory  means  of  making  a 
saving  in  the  consumption  of  gas.  It  renders  the  light 
of  a  small  flame  from  carbonized  gas  equal  to  that  of  a 
much  larger  flame  from  ordinary  gas.  Small  burners 
consuming  but  three  or  four  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  it  is 
claimed  can  be  substituted  for  larger  burners,  consuming 
from  five  to  eight  feet  per  hour,  without  any  diminution 
of  light ;  or,  where  half  a  dozen  lights  with  burners  of 
the  ordinary  size  are  needed  to  obtain  the  light  desired 
from  common  gas,  half  that  number  of  lights,  with  three- 
foot  burners  and  carbonized  gas,  are  said  to  serve  the 
same  purpose. 

This  principle  of  carbonizing  gas  is  also  applicable  to 
common  or  atmospheric  air,  which  as  a  source  of  illumi- 
nation has,  for  some  years  past,  attained  a  degree  of 
popularity  ;  and  is  destined  in  all  probability  to  assume 
a  prominent  position,  not  only  in  places  remote  from  gas- 
works, but  to  enter  into  competition  with  coal  gas  in  our 
cities  and  large  towns.  In  this  process  the  common  air 
is  driven  through  gasoline,  or  through  pumice  stone  and 
other  substances  saturated  with  this  lightest  product  of 


142  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

* 

kerosene  oil.  The  air  thus  charged  with  volatile  hydro- 
carbons is  not  only  combustible,  but  yields  a"  brilliant 
light,  superior  to  coal  gas. 

Escape  of  Gas,  etc.  —  Should  there  be  an  escape  of 
gas,  a  deficiency  of  supply,  or  a  jumping  of  the  lights, 
first  ascertain  whether  the  whole  of  the  lights,  or  a  part 
only,  are  affected  ;  if  a  part  only,  it  is  quite  evident  some 
portion  of  the  fittings  are  wrong,  but  if  the  whole,  the 
probability  is  the  meter  or  service-pipe  is  the  cause  ;  in 
which  case  the  Gas  Company  should  be  informed  as  early 
as  possible,  and  during  the  hours  of  daylight. 

Gas  Regulators  (sometimes  called  Governors)  have 
been  described  in  Chapter  IX.,  and  to  which  we  add  the 
following:  These  instruments  are  affixed  to  the  meter, 
and  are  rendered  necessary  by  the  variable  nature  of  the 
supply  of  gas.  Sometimes  its  pressure  is  more  than  that 
of  a  column  of  water  five  inches  high  ;  at  other  times  it 
will  not  be  equal  to  one  inch.  The  pressure  in  the  street 
mains  is  continually  varying,  and  it  is  to  counteract  the 
evil  effects  of  these  irregularities  in  the  supply,  that  a 
regulator  is  required.  This  it  does,  maintaining  an  uni- 
form degree  of  pressure  at  all  times,  to  all  the  burners, 
preventing  any  excess  of  pressure,  but  not  checking  the 
proper  supply.  It  acts  only  like  a  safety-valve  when  re- 
quired. It  is  as  necessary  as  a  rudder  to  a  ship,  or  reins 
to  a  horse.  No  amount  of  personal  watching  can  equal 
the  unerring,  immutable  laws  of  nature  by  which  a  perfect 
regulator  acts  spontaneously  when  required.  Some  persons 
unacquainted  with  the  mechanical  and  pneumatic  laws, 
imagine  that  they  can  regulate  the  gas  by  turning  the 
main  cock  on  or  off  as  required.  They  can  only  admit 
more  or  less  gas  by  that  means,  but  it  does  not  produce 
the  same  beneficial  effects,  in  the  slightest  degree,  as  a 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  143 

•*•  • 

perfect  regulator  does  :  the  regulator  prevents  all  the  evils 
which  they  in  vain  try  to  cure. 

Explosion  of  Gas.  —  Fitters  should  be  careful  when 
making  a  new  joint,  if  requiring  a  light  at  the  open  end 
of  a  pipe,  to  turn  the  outlet  tap  off,  or  disconnect  the  out- 
let union  of  the  meter ;  otherwise  there  is  great  risk  in 
blowing  up  and  damaging  the  meter. 

We  can  look,  however,  with  satisfaction  to  the  advance- 
ment science  has  made  in  connection  with  this  subject, 
for  now  we  know,  instead  of  gas  being  so  terribly  de- 
structive, that  when  unmixed  with  atmospheric  air  or 
oxygen,  it  is  as  harmless  as  regards  explosion  as  the 
water  in  the  tank  beneath  it ;  and  if  it  were  possible  to 
insert  a  lighted  torch,  or  taper,  into  a  holder  containing 
gas,  instead  of  the  gas  exploding,  the  flame  would  be 
extinguished.  In  other  words,  gas  unmixed  with  oxygen 
suffocates  flame,  and  in  this  state  cannot  ignite  or  explode. 

A  mixture  of  seven  parts  of  air  and  one  of  gas  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  explosive  compound,  but  this  must 
depend  on  the  quality  of  the  gas.  Mixtures  of  less  than 
three  of  air  to  one  of  gas,  or  more  than  eleven  of  air  and 
one  of  gas,  do  not  explode. 

Explosions  from  gas  are  exceedingly  rare.  The  odor 
arising  from  gas  is  generally  so  repulsive  as  to  awaken 
in  the  minds  of  the  most  callous  a  desire  to  avoid  the  in- 
convenience, and  in  so  doing  the  danger  is  averted. 
However,  there  are  circumstances  where  this  notice  by 
odor  is  not  manifested,  as  where,  from  the  lightness  of 
the  compound,  it  ascends  in  the  atmosphere  above ;  but 
when  in  dwellings  or  other  buildings  the  slightest  odor  of 
gas  is  noticed,  it  should  always  be  attended  to. 

At  one  period  or  other,  gas  works  have  been  the  scenes 
of  explosions.  This  has  sometimes  arisen  from  a  new 


144  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

gas-holder,  when  nearly  terminated  and  ready  for  use, 
having,  from  a  very  simple  oversight,  been  communicated 
with  the  manufacturing  apparatus  ;  and  it  has  afterwards 
happened  that  through  a  leaky  valve  allowing  the  gas  to 
pass,  or  perhaps  by  some  careless  person  thoughtlessly 
opening  the  valve,  the  gas  has  entered,  intermixed  with 
the  air  in  the  holder,  and  the  accidental  production  of  a 
light  has  caused  the  disaster.  Therefore,  when  new 
holders  are  constructed,  they  should  either  not  be  com- 
municated with  the  manufacturing  apparatus  until  quite 
terminated,  or  the  pipes  should  be  "logged"  or  sealed 
with  water,  so  that  no  gas  can  possibly  enter  until  quite 
ready  for  use. 

Explosions  of  this  nature  have  sometimes  occurred 
when  the  holder  was  being  first  filled  with  gas.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  took  place  a  few  years  ago,  by  which 
the  engineer  was  killed.  This  arose  from  a  defect  in  the 
construction,  and  want  of  ordinary  care  on  the  part  of 
the  unfortunate  sufferer.  The  facts  are  simple,  for  the 
holder,  on  being  charged  with  gas  at  the  commencement 
of  the  operations,  contained  a  considerable  quantity  of 
air,  the  two  forming  an  explosive  compound,  and  by  a 
singular  fatality  it  happened  that  the  holder  was  so  far 
bound,  or  set,  as  not  to  give  any  pressure.  The  engineer, 
desirous  of  judging  the  quality  of  gas,  very  imprudently 
tried  it  at  an  open  orifice  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter ;  the  consequence  was,  the  flame  entering,  the 
explosive  compound  in  the  holder  ignited,  and  produced 
the  disaster.  Had  the  gas  been  tried  by  an  argand  or 
fish-tail  burner,  the  accident  could  not  have  occurred,  the 
holes  in  these  being  too  small  to  permit  the  flame  to  enter. 

An  explosive  compound  of  gas,'  when  under  pressure, 
only  ignites  at  the  exterior  of  the  pipe  ;  but  if  the  pres- 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  145 

sure  be  taken  off,  the  flame  enters,  and  it  explodes.  An 
explosive  mixture  always  possesses  a  very  powerful  odor 
of  gas ;  this  is  sufficient  to  indicate  to  any  one,  that  a 
light  should  not  be  approached  ;  and  under  these  circum- 
stances, when  in  dwellings,  ordinary  precautions  only  are 
requisite  ;  above  all,  to  have  no  lights  near,  and  to  open 
the  doors  and'windows,  the  upper  part  of  the  latter  espec- 
ially, as  gas,  by  its  lightness,  ascends,  and  will  readily 
escape  thence.  The  main  tap  should  be  turned  off  and 
a  careful  inspection  made,  when,  perhaps,  a  burner  will 
be  found  turned  on,  or  an  hydraulic  joint  without  water, 
or  some  other  defect  which  can  be  easily  remedied.  No 
one  should  ever  apply  a  light  where  there  is  an  odor  of 
gas  in  the  upper  part  of  the  apartment ;  many  little  mis- 
haps have  occurred  through  neglecting  this  precaution. 
Should  there  be  any  escape,  which  can  only  be  detected  by 
flame,  the  gas  ought  to  be  turned  off  for  two  or  three 
hours,  and  the  other  precautions  being  adopted,  the  light 
may  be  applied  the  moment  the  main  tap  is  turned  on  ; 
but  it  is  always  better  and  safer  to  detect  escapes  in 
dwellings  without  the  employment  of  flame,  it  requiring 
only  a  little  more  patience. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  fire  occurring  near  gas-works,  the 
public  journals  sometimes  fall  into  an  error  by  assuming 
the  contents  of  the  gas-holders  to  be  explosive,  and  con- 
jecture the  amount  of  damage  that  would  arise  from  this 
event  occurring,  the  excitement  being  much  increased  by 
this  misstatement.  G-as-holders,  when  in  use,  that  is, 
containing  ordinary  gas,  cannot  by  any  means  explode, 
even  although  the  plates  forming  them  were  to  be  made 
red-hot  by  the  flames  ;  all  that  could  occur  is  that  the  gas, 
expanded  by  the  heat,  would  issue  in  detached  flames, 
but  no  explosion  could  take  place.  Another  common 


146  THE  GAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

error,  when  an  edifice,  as  a  theatre  for  example,  takes 
fire,  is  to  turn  off  the  gas  to  prevent  explosion,  and 
this  is  done  sometimes  at  the  risk  of  putting  the  audience 
in  darkness,  to  find  their  way  out  in  the  best  manner  they 
can.  Nothing  is  more  absurd ;  for  supposing,  at  the 
worst,  the  fire  to  melt  the  pipes  in  the  building,  and  the 
gas  to  issue,  the  same  flame  which  melted  the  pipe  would 
ignite  the  gas,  so  that  explosion  is  not  possible  under 
these  conditions.  A  good  system  is  to  have  a  valve  or 
valves  on  the  exterior  of  all  public  buildings  of  resort, 
which,  in  the  event  of  a  fire  unfortunately  occurring,  can 
be  shut  off  after  all  the  people  have  left  the  building,  so 
preventing  the  destructive  effects  of  the  flame  should  the 
gas  ignite,  and  the  loss  of  the  gas. 

How  to  stop  a  Leak. — When  a  slight  leakage  of  a  gas- 
tap  is  defected,  it  can,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  be  rem- 
edied in  the  following  manner :  Turn  off  the  gas  back  of 
the  meter ;  then  with  a  screw-driver  take  out  the  plug. 
Next  light  a  wax,  sperm,  or  paraffin  candle,  and  drop  the 
melted  wax,  sperm,  or  paraffin  upon  the  surface  of  the 
plug,  till  it  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer,  and  screw  in  the 
tap  again. 

ILLUMINATING    QUALITY   OF   GAS,  ETC. 

The  following  table  shows  the  illuminating  quality  of 
the  gas  consumed  in  various  towns  in  Great  Britain,  as 
determined  by  Prof.  Frankland  in  accordance  with  the 
government  test : 

London,  12  Candles,  Birmingham,  15  Candles, 

Carlisle,  16         "  Manchester,    22        " 

Liverpool,  22         "  Inverness,       25        " 

Edinburgh,  28         "  Glasgow,         28        " 

Greenock,  28.5      "  Harwick,        30        " 

Paisley,  30.3      "  Aberdeen,       35        « 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  147 

•*• 

In  Paris,  it  is  12.3,  Berlin,  15.5,  and  in  Vienna  only  9. 

In  addition  to  the  standard,  as  above,  for  London, 
which  is  for  the  common  gas,  there  is  on.e  manufactured 
from  cannel  coal,  the  standard  of  which  is  never  below 
20  candles.  This  gas  is  used  in  the  public  buildings,  the 
dwellings  of  the  wealthy,  etc. 

In  this  country  it  is  Very  difficult  to  get  at  the  quality  of 
the  gas  manufactured.  The  companies  keep  it  from  the 
public  ;  and  as  there  is  little  or  no  law  on  the  subject,  most 
of  the  gas  companies  throughout  the  country  treat  the  pub- 
lic on  the  principle  of — "If  you  don't  like  it,  don't  take  it" 

But  so  far  as  ascertained,  the  illuminating  power  of 
gas  in  this  country  varies  from  twelve  to  eighteen  candles, 
taking  the  English  standard  as  a  measure. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  want  of 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  general  public  in  matters 
relating  to  gas,  has  caused  many  persons  to  indulge  in 
much  ill-feeling,  suspicion,  and  censure ;  which  is  not 
limited  to  a  particular  class,  but  shared  by  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  community,  and  undoubtedly  this  would  be 
entirely  avoided  were  they  better  informed  on  the  mat- 
ter. We  often  find  persons  of  more  than  average  intel- 
ligence on  ordinary  subjects,  who  regard  the  operations 
of  gas  companies  as  of  a  doubtful  nature,  who  consider 
the  measurement  of  gas  as  a  mere  farce,  who  pretend  the 
sale  of  gas  to  be  a  mystery,  and  its  profits  incalculable  ; 
and,  only  recently,  a  gentleman  generally  remarkable  for 
his  liberality  of  opinion,  publicly  gave  expression  to  ob- 
servations calculated,  if  they  had  been  true,  to  reflect  but 
little  honor  on  gas  companies.  To  such  people  we  would 
suggest  that  they  should  inquire  into  the  subject  without 
prejudice  or  bias ;  and  when  this  is  done,  their  opinions 
on  the  point  will  be  materially  changed. 


148  THE  OAS-CONSUMER'S  GUIDE. 

By  giving  contradiction  to  some  of  the  many  popular  er- 
rors on  gas,  and  in  demonstrating  and  upholding  the  accu- 
racy of  the  measurement  of  gas,  we  may  be  regarded  by  a 
certain  class  as  the  partizan  of  gas  companies.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  instructions  to  consumers  how  to  econ- 
omize, how  to  employ  gas  to  the  best  advantage,  how 
to  test  it  for  impurities  —  may  be  considered  by  many 
interested  in  companies  as  unnecessary,  and  detrimental 
to  their  interests  ;  and  is  calculated  to  call  forth  the  cen- 
sure of  those  persons.  There  has  been,  however,  but 
one  course  to  pursue — to  maintain  the  truth,  and  to  fulfil 
to  the  best  of  our  ability  the  task  imposed  upon  us. 

We  are  fully  prepared  to  leara  that  our  statements  of 
the  light  derived  from  gas  under  various  conditions  do 
not  always  correspond  with  the  accepted  notions  of  gas 
engineers  in  general ;  but  all  assertions  have  been  sub- 
stantiated by  repeated  experiments  and  trials. 

It  may  be  considered  that  the  chapter  on  gas-meters  is 
too  detailed,  but  the  subject  is  difficult  to  explain  other- 
wise;  and  as  the  information  is  intended  for  the  public, 
and  not  for  those  engaged  in  gas  companies,  no  objection 
can  be  taken  to  it. 

The  subject  of  ventilation  is  very  intricate  and  difficult. 
So  far  as  space  would  admit,  we  have  given  such  instruc- 
tions as  we  considered  necessary  relating  thereto ;  but 
this  is  a  question  which  continually  presents  difficulties, 
therefore  our  observations,  cannot  be  expected*  to  meet  all 
conditions  and  circumstances. 

THE   END. 

TtTTFj? 

UNIVERSITY 
sS^UFO^^^ 


WIDOWS'  AND  ORPHANS' 


132  Broadway,  New  York. 


ASSETS   OVER 


H.    RA.YM:o:VI>,    President. 

$1,500,000. 


BOARD   OF  TRUSTEES. 


Harvey  B.  Merrell. 
Samuel  E.  Sproulls. 
Richard  A.  McCurdy. 
William  H.  Popham. 
David  Hoadley. 
Henry  A.  Smythe. 
Charles  H.  Welling. 
Alonzo  Child. 
Clinton  L.  Merriam. 
Samuel  D.  Babcock. 

Ezra  Wheeler. 
William  M.  Vermilye. 
Charles  H.  Raymond. 
J.  H.  Van  Antwerp. 
Theo.  W.  Morris. 
Lucius  Robinson. 
J.  V.  L.  Pruyn. 
S.  B.  Chittenden. 
Levi  P.  Stone. 

I.  Green  Pearson. 
Martin  Bates. 
William  Betts,  LL.D. 
John  Wadsworth. 
Alfred  Edwards. 
John  R.  Ford. 
Oliver  Harriman. 
Seymour  L.  Husted. 
Sheppard  Homans. 
F.  Ratchford  Starr. 

The  System  of  the  Company  is  Cash. 
The  Policy  of  the  Company  is  Security. 
The  Management  of  the  Company  is  Success. 
The  Object  of  the  Company  is  Benefit  to  its  Policy- 
holders. 
The  greatest  care  is  exercised  in  the  selection  of  lives  insured. 

All  safe  and  proper  privileges  are  extended  to  policy-holders. 

No  charge  is  made  for  policy  fee  or  medical  examination. 

THE    COMPANY   IS    MUTUAL. 

Dividends  are  available  on  the  first  anniversary  of  the  policy,  and  may  be 
used  to  purchase  additional  insurance,  or  as  cash  in  the  payment  of  premiums. 

The  Trustees  of  this  Company  are  men  of  long  and  successful  experience 
in  the  business  of  Life  Underwriting.  There  is  no  more  conservative  or 
carefully  managed  company  in  the  Unjted  States. 

The  Undoubted  Security  of  its  Policy-holders  is  the  first  object  of  the  Com- 
pany's management.  Solid  cash  assets,  carefully  invested,  are  the  BEST 
FOUNDATION  for  the  present  security  of  the  policy.  Adequate  cash  pre- 
miums, regularly  collected  and  invested,  are  the  BEST  GUARANTEE  of  the 
policy's  future  payment.  These  conditions  are  precisely  what  this  company 
assumes  and  fulfils. 

The  attention  of  careful  business  men  is  invited  to  the  system  of  RESERVED 
DIVIDENDS  adopted  by  this  Company. 

ROBERT  A.  GRANNISS,  Secretary. 

G-.  8.  WINSTON,  Medical  Examiner. 
SHEPPARD  HOMANS,  Consulting  Actuary. 
WILLIAM  BETTS,  LL.D.,  Counsel, 


CORNELIUS  &  SONS, 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 


LAMPS,    ETC. 


WHOLESALE  AND  RETAIL  SALESROOMS: 

"N"o.   831    Cherry  Street, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


ESTABLISHED    IN    1854,. 


Gas  Fixtures 


—  AND  — 


350  &  352  WASHINGTON  STREET, 
BOSTON. 


THE  Subscribers,  Agents  for  the  Celebrated  Manufactures  of  MITCHELL, 
VANCE  &  Co.,  New  York,  having  sold  their  fixtures  sixteen  years,  and 
obtained  the  HIGHEST  PREMIUM  for  the  same  at  the  last  FOUR 
Exhibitions  of  the  Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanic  As- 
sociation, would  confidently  invite  your  attention  to  their 

LARGE  AND   VARIED   STOCK, 

adapted  to  every  part  of 

Dwellings,  Stores,  Offices,  and  Public  Buildings. 

These  Fixtures  are  most  thoroughly  made  and  finished,  and  equal  to  any 
in  this  country.  They  will  be  sold  at  the  MANUFACTURERS'  LOWEST 
PRICES,  put  up  by  most  competent  workmen  of  long  experience,  and  war- 
ranted in  every  particular. 

We  also  give  our  personal  attention  to 

FITTING  BUILDINGS  WITH  GAS-PIPE, 

and  using  materials  of  the  most  approved  quality  ;  and  employing  competent, 
careful,  and  civil  workmen,  we  feel  confident  that  all  work  of  this  kind  in- 
trusted to  us  will  be  done  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner. 

Orders  for  Altering  or  Repairing  das-Pipes  or  Fixtures, 

and  all  kinds  of  GAS  JOBBING,  promptly  and  faithfully  executed. 

GAS  FIXTURES  RE-FINISHED  TO  LOOK  EQUAL  TO  NEW. 


This  very  important  work  done  in  the  most  thorough  and  substantial 
manner. 

Gas-Stoves  and  Patent  Gas-Burners, 

of  the  most  approved  kinds,  with  everything  belonging  to  the  trade,  in  full 
and  complete  assortment. 


£L    J±.    STETS03ST    S&    OCX, 
350  and  352  Washington  Street,  Boston. 


TUCKER 


(MANUFACTURERS.} 

GAS  &  KEROSENE  FIXTURES. 


An  extensive  variety  of  New  and  Beautiful  Patterns,  in  both  lines,  in 
large  fixtures,  for 

Churches,  Public  Halls,  Hotels,  Stores,  etc. 

«y  THE  STOCK  IS  ESPECIALLY  ATTRACTIVE.^* 


Importers  and  Dealers  in 

FOREIGN  &  DOMESTIC  GLASSWARE 

BIROISTZE    IFIO-TJIEIES,, 

For  Newel  LigTtts,  Portables,  and  Parlor  Ornaments. 

Burners,  Lava  Tips,  Flexible  Tubing, 

And  all  other  articles  pertaining  to  the  Gas  and  Kerosene  trade. 


117  and  119  Court  Street,  Boston, 

—AND— 

39  and  41  PARK  PLACE,  NEW  YORK. 


JOHN  HORTON, 

620  Broadway,     .    .     NEW  YORK, 

Manufacturer  of  all  kinds  of 

GAS  FIXTURES. 


A  Large  Assortment  of 
NEW  AND   BEAUTIFUL    PATTERNS 


SUITABLE   FOR 


CHURCHES,  PUBLIC  HALLS,  STORES,  &c. 

DESIGNS  FURNISHED  ON  APPLICATION. 


Especial  attention  called  to  my 

PATENT  CENTRE  LIGHT  EXTENSION  SLIDE  CHANDELIER, 

For  Parlors,  Libraries  and  Dining-Rooxns. 

This  is  a  Single  Joint  Slide,  and  avoids  the  many  leaky  joints  of  those 
now  in  use ;  and  is  quite  ornamental  in  design. 


FELLOWS,  HOFFMAN  &  CO., 

No.  74  Beekman  Street, 
NEW  YORK, 

GAS    FIXTURE 

A  1ST  U  F  A  C  T  U  R  E  R  S . 


Chandeliers,  Brackets, 


Portable  Stands,  etc. 

ALSO,  A  FOLI,  STOCK  OP 


-  FOR  - 

IKON    PIPE 


AND ; 

QAS  FIXTURES, 

OF  EVERT  DESCRIPTION,  AT 

3Li  O  "W      F  IR,  I  O  E  S3 

IN 

Most  Complete  and   Varied  Assortment, 

IN 

Gilt,  Crystal,  Real  Bronze,  Imitation  Bronze, 

AND  ALL  DESIRABLE  COLORS, 

OF  DESIGNS   UNEQUALLED  IN  EXCELLENCE, 
APPROPRIATE  FOR 

DWELLINGS,  HOTELS,  STORES,  HALLS,  CHURCHES,  etc, 

ALSO, 

Gilt,  Bronze,  and  Marble  Clocks. 

These  movements  strike  the  hours  and  half-hours ;  have  the  low  tick  and 
pleasant  strike  of  the  best  French  Clocks ;  and  as  Time-Keepers  are  war- 
ranted equal  to  the  best,  and  much  superior  to  the  ordinary  imported  clocks. 


Salesrooms,  No,  597  Broadway,  near  Houston  Street, 

Manufactory,  24th  Street  &  lOth  Ave. 
NEW   YOHK    CITY. 


ARCHER  &  PANCOAST 

Manufacturing  Co., 


MANUFACTURERS  'OF 


GAS  FIXTURES, 

Lamps,  Chandeliers,  Brackets,  etc,, 

OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION. 


MANUFACTORY  AND    WAREROOMS: 

Nos.  70,  72,  and  74  Wooster  Street, 

(Between  Broome  and  Spring  Sts.,) 


Our  Stock  is  very  extensive,  embracing  every  variety  of  style,  elegant  in 
design  and  superior  in  finish,  and  is  being  constantly  augmented  by  the 
addition  of  NEW  PATTERNS. 

Employing  the  most  experienced  and  skilful  artists  of  Europe  and 
America,  and  having  introduced  into  every  department  of  our  Manufactory 
new  and  improved  machinery,  we  are  enabled  to  produce  a  class  of  goods 
of  a  style  and  quality,  and  at  prices,  that  cannot  fail  to  please  purchasers. 

Careful  attention  will  be  given  to  the  Furnishing  of  Churches, 
Public  Halls,  Private  Residences,  etc.,  and  Designs  for  special 
purposes  will  be  submitted  when  required. 

N.B. —  The  Broadway  cars  pass  our  warerooms  in  going  down  town. 

ARCHER  &  PANCOAST  MANUFACTURING  CO. 


ee     J, 


BRASS  AND  IRON  GAS  BURNERS,  ETC. 

Importer  of  Shades,  Chimneys,  Lava,  and  Scotch  Tips, 
2V"o.  135  Mercer  Street,     .     .     .     NEW   YORK. 


Patent  Gas  Carbonizer. 

FIRST  PREMIUM  awarded  by  Hie  American  institute,  Nov.,  1870. 


This  is  an  instrument  for  enriching  common  gas,  making  it  yield  a  softer 
and  steadier  as  well  as  a  brighter  light,  and  with  less  heat.  By  using  it, 
consumers  of  gas  may 

Very  Greatly  Reduce  their  Bills  Without  Reducing 

the  Amount  of  their  Light , 

or,  if  they  prefer  it,  they  may  have  a  greatly  increased  amount  of  light 
without  iocreased  expense. 

The  instrument  is  fully  endorsed  and  recommended  by  some  of  the  highest 
scientific  authorities  in  America  and  Europe,  sanctioned  by  the  N.  Y.  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  adopted  by  many  of  the  leading  houses  in  New 
York,  Montreal  and  London.  Several  hundred  of  them  are  already  in  use 
in  New  York  and  vicinity,  giving  marked  and  increasing  satisfaction. 

They  are  manufactured  l»y 

THE    WOODWARD 


OF  NEW  YORK, 

of  various  sizes,  from  a  10-light  to  a  500-light  instrument,  and  Rented  or 
Leased  at  prices  that  make  it  an  object  for  gas-consumers  to  use  them. 


Principal     Office, 

163  Broadway,    .     .     .     NEW  YORK. 


FIXTURES. 


W.   H.  SOUTHER  &  CO., 

20  Boylston  Street,  Boston. 


Constantly  on  hand  a 
large  and  well  selected 
stock  of 


G003DS. 


For  HEATING  and  COOKING,  BROILING,  BAKING  and 
IRONING  with  Perfect  Success. 

We  respectfully  call  your  attention  to  our  stock  of  GAS  FIXTURES, 
carefully  selected  from  the  largest  manufactories  in  New  York  and  Boston, 
which  we  offer  at  favorable  prices. 

W.  H.  SOUTHER   &   CO., 

No.     2O     IBOYIu/STOlV     STREET. 


w.  ^.  WOOD, 
Gas  &  Steam  Fitter, 

50  EMERSON  STREET, 

Cor.  Broadway  &  I  St.  SOUTH  BOSTON. 


Constantly  on  hand  a  large  and  well-selected  stock  of 

G-.A.S     IFIIXTTJIEIIES,     ETC. 


The  Proprietor  is  a  PRACTICAL  MECHANIC  ;  has  carried  on  the  husiness 
during  the  last  twelve  years  with  perfect  satisfaction  to  his  numerous  cus- 
tomers, and  trusts,  by  continued  attention  to  business,  to  merit  the  patronage 
of  all  who  may  favor  him  with  their  orders. 

All  kinds  of  work  in  Steam  and  Gas  Fitting  done  in  the  best  manner,  with 
neatness  and  despatch. 

Gas  Fixturesjind  Piping. 

T.   &   W.   LUTTEI5, 

369  Broadway  .  .  SOUTH  BOSTON. 


GAS   FIXTURES,  GAS  SHADES, 

Kerosene  Lamps,  Shades,  etc., 

IN  GREAT  VARIETY. 

BUILDINGS   FITTED    WITH    GAS    PIPES, 
Oas-MIeters    Connected, 

And  all  kinds  of  Jobbing  promptly  executed,  and  in  the  best  manner. 
GAS     FIXTURES     REFINISHED. 


T-    cSc    "W\ 

369   BROADWAY,    .    .    .     SOUTH   BOSTON. 


GAS  FIXTURES  AND  LAMPS. 


E.  TARBELL  &  SON, 


No.   15  Bromfield  Street,    Boston, 

MANUFACTURERS  AND  DEALERS  IN 

Gas  and  Coal  Oil 

FIXTURES  AND  LAMPS, 

GAS  STOVES  FOR  COOKING  AND  HEATING, 


Gas  JPiping  and  Fitting  in  all  its  IBranelies. 

Chandeliers  and  Lamps  Re-Gilt  and  Bronzed. 

F  O  IR,     THCE     IF  .A.  HUE  I  ILi 


Leicestershire 
TABLE    SAUCE 


THE  CHEAPEST  AND   BEST. 

TO    BE  HAD  OF  ANY  GKROOER. 


CO 

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CQ 


0 

£ 
•*=• 

CO 

0 

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3 

CO 

$ 


JAGGOTING, 
ATHEI^ING, 
PODDING, 

BINDING, 
CELLING, 
BUCKING, 


j^EMMING 

PIGHT  OF 

j^EAYY  DEWING 


ELASTIC  STITCH 

AND 

SHUTTLE  STITCH 


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GOOD    HEALTH. 

A  Popular  Monthly  Medical  Journal. 

A  VEHICLE  OF  INSTRUCTION  TO  THE  PEOPLE, 

Lessons   of  Correct    Living, 

AS   DEVELOPED   BY   SCIENCE. 


REASONS  FOR  TAKING   "GOOD   HEALTH." 

IT  IS  THE  ONLY  MAGAZINE  OF  ITS  CLASS. 

It  occupies  an  important  field,  long  vacant. 

Its  Publishers  have  no  hobby  of  their  own,  patent  medicine,  or  system  of 
quackery  to  present. 

It  will  never  be  made  the  medium  for  offensive  or  improper  advertisements. 

IT  IS  NOT  THE  ORGAN  OF  ANY  MEDICAL  PARTY  OR  CLIQUE. 

Its  aim  is  to  present  an  instructive,  useful  and  readable  journal. 

ITS  WRITERS  ARE  AMONG  THE  FIRST  MEDICAL  AND  SCIEN- 
TIFIC MEN  OF  THE  DAY. 

Its  articles  are  written  in  a  pleasing  and  interesting  style,  combining  enter- 
tainment with  instruction. 

It  contains  in  each  number  hints  applicable  to  all,  and  worth,  to  any  one, 
a  year's  subscription. 

It  keeps  its  readers  informed  relative  to  the  scientific  discoveries  of  the 
day,  and  their  influence  upon  medical  practice  and  the  laws  of  health. 

IT  HAS  RECEIVED  MORE  AND  HIGHER  COMMENDATIONS 
FROM  EMINENT  SCIENTIFIC  MEN,  AND  FROM  THE  PRESS, 
THAN  ANY  OTHER  JOURNAL  OF  ITS  AGE. 

Its  teachings  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  reliable  of  any  journal  in 
the  country,  treating  upon  similar  and  kindred  topics. 

"It  takes  the  laws  of  life  and  the  conditions  of  health,  as  they  are  recog- 
nized by  the  great  masters  of  Anatomical,  Physiological,  Medical  and  Edu- 
cational Science,  and  unfolds  and  enforces  them  in  a  peculiarly  effective  and 
popular  style."  "  So  far  from  being  dry,  as  such  works  are  apt  to  be,  there  is 
really  little  reading  in  GOOD  HEALTH  that  is  not  as  entertaining  as  a  2fovel, 
while  its  contents  have  a  direct  tendency  to  elevate  the  taste,  store  the  mind, 
preserve  the  health,  and  lengthen  '  the  life  of  the  reader.' " 


MONTHLY. 
Yearly $2.00  I  Monthly 20cts. 

CLUB   RATES, 

3  copies  for  one  year $5  00 

5  copies  for  one  year 8  00 

10  copies  for  one  year 15  00 

An  extra  copy  to  getters  up  of  Clubs  often  or  more. 


Agents  wanted  in  every  State  of  the  Union,  to  canvass  for  "GOOD 
HEALTH,"  and  sell  our  other  Popular  Books.  The  most  liberal  induce- 
ments given.  Specimen  numbers,  with  terms,  on  application.  Ladies  can 
find  a  pleasant  and  profitable  employment  in  canvassing  for  GOOD  HEALTH. 

Volume  1  of  GOOD  HEALTH  is  now  ready,  being  Nos.  1  to  12,  bound  in 
cloth,  bevelled,  price  $2.50.  By  mail,  $2.75. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  volumes  for  family  use,  ever  issued  from 
the  press.  Address 

ALEXANDER  MOORE,  Publisher, 
11   Bromfleld.   Street,    .    .    BOSTON, 


GOOD  HEALTH,  1870. 

A  Popular  Annual  on  the  Laws  of  Correct  Living,  as 

developed  by  Medical  Science,  etc.     582  pp. 

Cloth,  Price  $2.50. 

This  Volume  is  prepared  from  the  new  Magazine  of  the  same  name,  and 
which  has  received  more  and  higher  recommendations  from  the  Press,  and 
from  Eminent  Authorities,  than  any  other  work  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  papers  to  be  found  in  this  book,  and  to 
which  we  would  also  call  attention  :  — 

Eye  and  Sight,  4  Papers,  by  B.  Joy  Jeffries,  A.M.,  M.  D. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Parasites,  5  Papers,  by  B.  Joy  Jeffries,  A.M.,  M.D. 

Deformities  Incident  to  Civilization,  and  other  Papers,  by  Prof.  Samuel 
Kneeland,  A.M.,  M.D. 

Our  Bread,  Our  Drinks,  Cells  and  their  Life,  etc.,  by  Dr.  C.  Both. 

Various  Articles  on  the  Management  of  Children,  by  W.  M.  Cornell,  M.D., 


On  the  Management  of  the  Skin,  by  Balmanno  Squire,  M.B.,  F.L.S.,  6 
ers. 
irst  Help  in  Accidents,  by  C.  H.  Schaible,  M.  D.,  10  Papers. 


Papers. 
First 


THE    EYE    IN    HEALTH    AND    DISEASE. 
Being  a  Series  of  Papers  on  the  Anatomy  and  Phys- 
iology of  the  Human  Eye,  and  its  Surgical 
and  Medical  Treatment. 

By  B.  JOY  JEFFRIES,  A.M.,  M.D., 

Fellow  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society,  Member  of  the  American 
Ophthalmological  Society,  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  the  Mass.  Charitable  Eye 
and  Ear  Infirmary,  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  the  Carney  Hospital,  Lecturer 
on  Optical  Phenomena,  and  the  Eye,  at  Harvard  University.  Cloth,  $1.50. 


"FIRST   HIEI^P   I1V 

A  Surgical  Guide  in  the  absence  or  before  the  arrival  of  Medical  Assist- 
ance.   Illustrated  with  numerous  cuts. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  upon  which  it  treats. 
Bad  Air.  Bruises.          Contusions.        Fractures.       Sprains. 

Bites.  Burns.  Dislocations.      Hanging.          Suffocation. 

Bleeding.  Choking.         Drowning.         Poisoning.       Sunstroke. 

Broken  Bones.  Cold.      >         Exhaustion.       Scalds.  Vapors  inhaled. 

And  other  Accidents  where  instant  aid  is  needful.    Cloth,  $1.00. 


IN    PREPARATION, 

A  New  Work    on    Consumption. 

33  y     IDR.     CA.RIL,     BOTH. 

This  will  be  the  first  work  ever  published  demonstrating  the  actual  appli- 
cation and  results  of  cellular  physiology  and  pathology. 

ALEXANDER  MOORE,  Publisher,  Boston, 


J 


UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  LIBEAEY, 
BEEKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period.  fifvfdhT  AM  II  I 


NOV 


2 
22Mar'53HD 


*-: 


OCT22165-9PM 


DEC2&.J979 


If 


NOV  2  1  1997 

U.C.BERKELEY 
JUN   1 B  1998 


AU617W8 
DEC  1  0  2002 


20m-ll,'20 


ition. 


'ork. 


U.  U.  btniSCLCT 


At  Exhibitions  in  the  U.  S.     First  Premiums 
over  all  Competition. 


York. 


